Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system is a structure which moves gases, nutrients and waste among cells, transfer blood within the body and also help to fight against diseases. The main elements included in the cardiovascular system are the blood, heart and different blood vessels. There are different circuits one of among them is a pulmonary circuit which helps in the transfer of blood through lungs. The other is the systematic circuit whose work is to transfer rest of the blood throughout the body. Another necessary element is the cardiac cycle, which is determined on the basis of diastole and systole. In diastole, the heart is in the rest position and fills up the blood while in systole heart is active in pumping blood.
- The main role of the cardiovascular system is that it supplies nutrients and oxygen to the body tissues through the bloodstream. The system also helps in removal of waste products from tissues and carries them to liver and kidney and return the carbon dioxide back to the lungs from the tissues.
- Khong (2015), asserted that the systems also help in maintaining the thermal balance of body by distributing the heat during exercise.
- During exercise, the demand for oxygen increases, so cardiovascular system helps in the transfer of oxygen to the body when required.
- It also helps in fighting against the infections with the help of white blood cells.
- The system also regulates the level of water content in cells, body temperature and the fluid ph.
In the human body, the cells require a particular stream of oxygen to live. For this, the respiratory system helps the cells of the body by providing oxygen and also remove the carbon dioxide and the waste product which is present if permitted to accumulate. The respiratory system is divided into three major parts: the respiration muscles, the lungs and the airway. The lungs perform as a functional part of the system by passing oxygen within the body and the carbon dioxide away from the body. The airway includes nose, pharynx, mouth, larynx, trachea and the bronchioles which carry air between the exterior of the body and lungs. The respiration muscles includes the diaphragm and the muscles which perform together as a pump which pushes air in and out of lungs while breathing.
One thing which is common between the respiratory and the cardiovascular system is that they both work towards the similar object that is providing oxygen to body tissues and getting out of carbon dioxide from the body. The respiratory system associated with providing oxygen to the blood and evacuating carbon dioxide. At the point when the heart gets blood, the level of oxygen is low, and the level of carbon dioxide is high, it directs it to the lungs through the pulmonary blood vessels. At the point when the lungs grow and get natural air from the earth, oxygen is exchanged in the oxygen blood that is low, which likewise then sends some of its carbon dioxides again into the lungs. Since this blood has new oxygen in it, it comes back to the heart, and the heart at that point draws it all through the body.
Respiratory System
The respiratory system and cardiovascular system experiences different transformations with age. The basic change incorporates chest divider which disables the aggregate respiratory system in consistency increase in breathing and in the heart respectively. The strength of respiratory muscles will decline with age and can obstruct a cough that is important for clearing of the airway. Critically, the changes in the lungs mix the impact of heart and lung sicknesses the individual may have, particularly those caused by the dangerous impacts of smoking.
In healthy individuals, these age-related changes sometimes prompt side effects. Even in healthy people, the capacity for a high level of exercise decreases as age decline. Robinson (2014) stated that this is done by the decline in the functioning of all body parts, especially the heart. This will result in a slight slowdown of heartbeat rate. With the rise in age, the structure of heart becomes less flexible.
The path physiology of angina which is chest pain due to reduced blood flow to heart muscles. The same results in result in burning in chest and feels like suffocation. The reason behind this is exertion like strenuous activity, prolonged exertion during work or recreation. The pain is then spread to left arm, jaw, back and neck. The symptoms of path physiology of angina are:
- Feeling nausea
- Dizziness
- Breathlessness
- Restlessness
- Feeling tired (Ionescu, 2013)
Emphysema is path physiologically termed as the basis for the decrease in pulmonary recoil. The changes included with this are that it starts with the damage in the airway and air pouches in the lungs. It improves from a cough with sputum in difficulty in breathing. Critically, the damage made by the COPD cannot be done again. The signs of COPD include:
- Conciseness of breath while performing routine activities
- Chronic cough
- Numerous infections in respiration
- Blueness in fingernails or on lips.
- Creating high amount of sputum than normal
- Fatigue
- Chest tightness
- Wheezing
The following risk factors of angina and emphysema are:
- USE OF TOBACCO – chewing of tobacco and smoking damage the inner walls of heart arteries.
- OLDER AGE – men above and women above have a more risk that the other adults
After studying about the disease of John, it can be seen that this problem has occurred due to actively smoking of tobacco. To prevent this from happening again, he will have to quit smoking. For that, the nicotine therapy should be adopted immediately. Next step to stop this problem changes in his dietary and increasing the physical exercise.
- CARDIOLOGIST – he is the physician who has specialization in treating heart problems. His job is to inform the doctor about new tests and drugs. Lalley, (2013) asserted that the main roles of cardiologist include advising and then the interpretation of the test and then treat his patients on the basis of the tests. Sometimes he also has to perform surgeries.
- CARDIAC NURSE – manages test for stress and ECG for patients having heart conditions and other complications. They monitor patients and organize them for open surgery of heart .nurses report to the doctor about patients health status and also communicate with the family of patients. They also aware the communities about cardiovascular health and its effect.
Artificial immunity is usually induced by a vaccine in which antigen is contained. In this, the person is intentionally made exposed to the antigens with an objective of generating a protecting immune response. This is of two types: artificial acquired passive and active immunity.
The endocrine system provides a mechanism for integration, synchronization and regulation of all body cells, system and organs. Rotella, Dicembrini & Pala (2017), asserted the main function of the system comprises regulation of growth, metabolism, reproduction and maturation. Further, the hormones are released into the blood circulation and may impact various organs of the human body. The endocrine system is inclusive of major glands that are a pituitary gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, parathyroid glands, ovaries and testicles (reproductive organs).
Similarities between Respiratory and Cardiovascular Systems
Endocrine system of the human body consists of a group of glands that regulate the process and systems of the body by secreting hormones (chemical substances present in the human body). Hormones are further carried out in the blood circulation to act upon targeted organs and tissues. Hormones are considered significant for initiating particular cells to generate specific actions in relation to body imbalances. Chapman (2013) specified that these glands are liable to recognize the requirement of secretion of hormones. This procedure is strongly controlled by the endocrine system to manage the metabolism system in human body. They are said to be essential in retaining the functions of body normal. These processes are inclusive of reproduction system, cellular metabolism sugar homeostasis, sexual development or any nutrients and heart rate, mood, digestion, sleep and blood pressure (Mowat & Agace, 2014).
Hypothyroidism mean when the human body is not able to produce sufficient thyroid hormone, as the major aim of thyroid hormone is to regulate the metabolism of the body; individuals suffering from thyroid hormone will have signs regarding the slow system of metabolism. Risk factors of Hypothyroidism are when a female elder than sixty years, suffering from autoimmune disease, having family heredity of thyroid disease, treated with therapy of radioactive iodine, gone through the surgery of thyroid, noticing radiations occurring in neck or chest or have gone through pregnancy or delivery in the last 6 months.
Individuals having hypothyroidism often notice no or not many severe symptoms. Several symptoms are related to hypothyroidism and can be associated with the underlying causes or direct impact of sufficient thyroid hormones. The symptoms of pathophysiology are fatigue, cold, weak hearing and memory, Constipation, dyspepsia, weight gain and weak appetite, lack of breathing, rough voice. The medical condition of Isabella is not in line with the symptoms which are usually observed in pathophysiology.
The digestive system consists of the digestive tract and related organs (Abbas, Lichtman & Pillai, 2014). This track of digestion is a long tube by which food is passed when it is broken down; the digestive tract is comprised of mouth, then the food goes to throat then the food is passed into oesophagus, stomach, intestines and ultimately anus. The related organs of digestions are inclusive of salivary glands which have three pairs; liver, pancreas and gallbladder.
The normal function of the digestive system is mainly digestion and further absorption. Digestion refers to the breakdown of food particles in small pieces which are absorbed in the body. The digestive system is a system is a function of the human body that helps in food digestion. It conducts its concerned function of turning the food into energy that is required by the body in order to survive and covering the remains of wastage and its disposal (Parham, 2014). Once the food is consumed, the nutrients are required to be digested and are absorbed and passed by blood-stream throughout the body.
Age-Related Changes in Respiratory and Cardiovascular Systems
The immune system is comprised of specific cells, organs, proteins and tissues that fight against germs, infections or microorganisms presented in a human body. D’Aurizio and et al. (2015) specified that the immune system defends substances and microorganisms that attack system of the body and the further root cause of diseases. Mostly, the immune system has a great hand behind saving people from infectious diseases and keeping them healthy. However, in some cases, immune system problem can result in infections and sickness. The immune system is considered as a defence system of the body against infections or invaders. Hence, this system includes cells that work together in order to protect the health system and human body.
T-Cell and B-Cells are produced by the immune system of a human body which are capable of being reactive which self-antigens. However, specified cells are usually killed prior becoming active with the immune system as they are removed from their role within the immune system. Autoimmune diseases are systemic diseases which stem the pathogenesis by activation of lymphocytes which are B- and T- in opposition to the antigens relating to tissues of human body.
Autoimmune diseases are a consequence of particular responses of immune-regulated in opposition to self-structures. These diseases are the result of transformed immune system function. These diseases might engage one or multiple organs. This reaction might create a loss to the hyperfunction of targeted tissue or organ (Cho & Feldman, 2015).
By considering the medical condition of Isabella, initially, she has to undergo for a laboratory test of thyroid fuelling the level of hormone in the bloodstream. After the confirmation, the second test is done that is TSH level. Levels can result abnormal in terms of illness, further in this analysis TSH testing is discouraged in a situation where thyroid dysfunction is highly presumed (Knoll, Lodish & Sun, 2015). A high level of TSH shows that thyroid gland is not able to generate sufficient thyroid hormone, and then the T4 levels are obtained. In accordance with the case of Isabella, there are several rating scales of symptoms for hypothyroidism; they offer a high level of objectivity, however, have limited use for diagnosis.
Some health professional engaged in taking care of Isabella medical condition is a nurse and her doctor. The major responsibility of a nursing professional is to give proper care to the patient so as to comfort them. It is significant that a nurse is likely to determine issues arising in medical condition then developing a treatment plan according to it, further making coordination with other physicians. TSH tests are considered to be a most important stage in treating hypothyroidism. Since, these tests will assist the doctor in determining the appropriate medicines, at initial as well as extraordinary hours.
Pathophysiology of Angina and Emphysema
The function of the nervous system is to manage the functions of the body. It includes 4 primary functions which relate to the body area of which the system controls information. There are as follows:
- The system collects the information both from within the body and the external environment.
- The system then communicates the collected information to the spinal cord and the brain.
- After communicating the gathered information is then processed.
- At last the nervous system helps in determining the function by which the effectors tend to act.
Pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis is considered as a disease of central nervous system (inflammatory demyelinating) that means immune cells which are activated attach the CNS and further lead to inflammation, tissue cells damage and neurodegeneration MS is an inflammatory disease that invades myelinated axons in CNS, damaging the axon at inconsistent levels, further generating considerable physical disability (Aung, Razali & Cho, 2013). MS’s Hallmark is indicative episodes that take place on the monthly or yearly basis and impact multiple anatomic locations.
The symptoms of the pathophysiology of MS are vision problems, numbness, loss of balance, bladder and Sexual dysfunction, and weakness and Cognitive problems. By considering the medical condition of Daisy, it can be said that she is suffering from MS and require immediate treatment.
The urinary system is said to be the structure that generates and regulated urine to excretion point. The structure of human body generally has two pairs of the kidney, one pair on the left and second on the right (Jones, Hard & Mohr, 2013). Formation of urine is done by nephrons, kidney’s functional unit and is further passed through the system knows as collecting ducts.
The collecting ducts mix all together in order to structure minor calyces which at last joins kidney pelvis . Further, the urine passes from the pelvis to ureter (a tubular structure that takes the urine from the kidney to the bladder).
During the process of urination, the urine is kept in the bladder and is released by the urethra. The process of urine in males, the further starts at the inner urethral orifice in bladder trigone and keep on going through the outer urethral orifice and then turn into penile urethra, prostatic, bulbar and membranous.
Fletcher, (2017) specified that in females, the urethra is comparatively shorter, beginning at the bladder neck and terminating in the vaginal vestibule.
The special senses consist of five key tools that are used by humans to see the world. These special senses are a vision, smell, and taste, hear and touch. The ability to see, hear taste and touch are possible in a human body due to the presence of sensory receptors or special senses or endings of the peripheral nervous system (element of nervous system inclusive of nerves that expands from the spinal cord and brain to throughout the body). Senses react to stimulus by translating the specified stimulus to an impulsive nerve. The nerve is further transmitted by sensory receptors to the brain, where the feeling of vision, hear, smell and taste are felt. Thus, the brain gets signals from each sense and understands them to give a sensibility of surroundings (Solaro, Trabucco & Uccelli, 2013).
- Vision: people having a disorder of MS might face vision problem to some extent such as colour blindness, loss of vision, blurring.
- Hearing: people experiencing issues with hearing can occur from inflammation.
- Taste: researchers recommend that MS impact the taste sense such as not able to taste or sense salty or sweet food(D’haeseleer and et al., 2015).
- Smell: Studies found that low sense of smell in multiple sclerosis emerges to be connected to a reduction in the volume of surroundings and olfactory bulb.
- Touch: the ability to touch or dell can be affected by MS increasing the infuriating feelings like itching, numbness, tingling etc.
Risk Factors of Angina and Emphysema
Edentulous refers to being in a situation of not having teeth (toothless), in humans the real definition edentulous means loss of the tooth. Starting with losing some teeth is known as partial edentulism, while complete loosing of teeth is known as complete edentulism. Losing all the teeth can considerably make reduction in life quality, personality and functioning activities on a daily basis. In short, organisms that never have had teeth can also be said as edentulous. Individuals who lost teeth in a partial or complete manner is called edentulous while individuals who have teeth or never been in a situation of losing teeth is known as dentate (Dendrou, Fugger & Friese, 2015)
Oral health has a significant impact on overall health. The oral disease might affect one’s ability to eat healthy food. Yamasaki and et al., (2014), asserted that low-grade infection in the mouth might lead to systemic illness which comprises cardiovascular diseases, pulmonary and lung disease and poor pregnancy outcomes. Bacteria from the mouth can cause infection in other parts of the body in the case when the immune system has been weakening by other disease or medical treatment. The other health issues of Daisy might get affected due to this oral disease. Common risk factors of oral health are:
- Diet
- Alcohol consumption
- Hygiene
- Injuries
- Control and Stress
By considering the medical condition of Daisy, she is required to get medications that can assist in easing MS attacks and potentially slow down the disorder. She can also take physical therapies and related treatment to control and manage these symptoms and disease while improving the life quality. The Proper dosage of medicine can also help in managing MS disease (Wang & Kasper, 2014).
Health professionals involved in caring and curing health condition of Daisy is her doctor and nurse. The main responsibility of her medical and nursing specialist is to take advanced care and give proper treatment inclusive of diagnosis adjustment, symptoms management, and counselling, ensuring the life of quality, providing medication and controlling side effects.
References
Abbas, A. K., Lichtman, A. H., & Pillai, S. (2014). Basic immunology: functions and disorders of the immune system. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Aung, N., Razali, A., & Cho, M. M. (2013). A handbook on special senses (vision, hearing, smell and taste).
Chapman, R. F. (2013). Structure of the digestive system. Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology, 165-211.
Cho, J. H., & Feldman, M. (2015). Heterogeneity of autoimmune diseases: pathophysiologic insights from genetics and implications for new therapies. Nature medicine, 21(7), 730-738.
D’Aurizio, F., Villalta, D., Metus, P., Doretto, P., & Tozzoli, R. (2015). Is vitamin D a player or not in the pathophysiology of autoimmune thyroid diseases?. Autoimmunity reviews, 14(5), 363-369.
Dendrou, C. A., Fugger, L., & Friese, M. A. (2015). Immunopathology of multiple sclerosis. Nature Reviews Immunology, 15(9), 545-558.
D’haeseleer, M., Hostenbach, S., Peeters, I., Sankari, S. E., Nagels, G., De Keyser, J., & D’hooghe, M. B. (2015). Cerebral hypoperfusion: a new pathophysiologic concept in multiple sclerosis?. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, 35(9), 1406-1410.
Fletcher, O. (2017). 10.2 Nervous, Special Senses, & Endocrine Systems: Brain-Bacterial, Mycotic, & Protozoal Diseases.
Ionescu, C. (2013). The Human Respiratory System. London: Springer.
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Knoll, M., Lodish, H. F., & Sun, L. (2015). Long non-coding RNAs as regulators of the endocrine system. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 11(3), 151-160.
Lalley, P. (2013). The aging respiratory system—Pulmonary structure, function and neural control. Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology, 187(3), 199-210. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resp.2013.03.012
Mowat, A. M., & Agace, W. W. (2014). Regional specialization within the intestinal immune system. Nature Reviews Immunology, 14(10), 667-685.
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Rotella, C. M., Dicembrini, I., & Pala, L. (2017). Endocrine System and Cardiovascular Disease. In Integrative Cardiology (pp. 99-107). Springer International Publishing.
Solaro, C., Trabucco, E., & Uccelli, M. M. (2013). Pain and multiple sclerosis: pathophysiology and treatment. Current neurology and neuroscience reports, 13(1), 320.
Wang, Y., & Kasper, L. H. (2014). The role of microbiome in central nervous system disorders. Brain, behavior, and immunity, 38, 1-12.
Yamasaki, R., Lu, H., Butovsky, O., Ohno, N., Rietsch, A. M., Cialic, R., … & Kidd, G. (2014). Differential roles of microglia and monocytes in the inflamed central nervous system. Journal of Experimental Medicine, jem-20132477.
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