Volcanic Eruption History Of Mt Nyamuragira And Krakatau

TH40019E Aviation Travel Geography

Volcanic Eruption History of Krakatau

Topic: Volcanic Eruption History of Mt Nyamuragira (Democratic Republic of Congo) and Krakatau (Indonesia)

Volcanic eruption is a key process that explains the formation of various Earth Systems. A considerable number of geographic and physical features that form the environment were formed through a volcanic eruption. Eruption of volcanoes is a common geological phenomenon, with more than a dozen eruptions occurring daily and over 200 eruptions yearly (McLean et al., 2020, p.67). Despite the beautiful landforms and unique physical features product by volcanic eruptions, for centuries, the eruption process has been a nightmare for the survival of humanity, especially in communities that reside on the eruption-prone sites. The eruptive behavior of volcanoes is diverse, reflecting the complexity of the interaction of magmas and release onto the surface of the Earth’s surface through active volcanic features such as mountains. Volcanoes’ eruptions on mountains are influenced by the properties of Earth’s crust, tectonic setting, and the history of eruption in a particular region. In reference to these descriptions, this report presents a scientific report on the history (1992-2022) of volcanic eruptions on Mt. Nyamuragira in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Krakatau in Indonesia.

The Indonesian archipelago is dotted with Volcanoes, especially on Java Island, where over 65% of the population lives around active volcanoes. Krakatau Island in Sunda Strait between Sumatra and Java Islands. The island has a long volcanic eruption history; nearly volcanic eruptions occur yearly. It became infamous for its 1883 deadliest Plinian eruptions that destroyed the previous edifice and extended its caldera. The Anak Krakatau has a historical past of volcanoes and a continuation pattern of volcanic activity (Shnyukov, and Yanko-Hombach, 2020, p.132). These exposes potential hazards in the future by its proximity to the thriving business community and vibrant shipping lanes of Sumatra and Java and a major population community of Jakarta. Previous research studies have focused on the complexity of the volcanoes at Anak Krakatau and little research on the historical pattern of volcanoes from 1992 onwards; thus, the research ventures into evaluating the historical volcanic pattern of Krakatau between 1992 and 2022. Below is the image of the eruptive Anak Krakatau, Indonesia

Anak Krakatau, Indonesia (Habakaramo et al. 2019)

Nyamuragira is an active volcanic mountain in the Virunga plains located approximately 30 kilometers south of Lake Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is the most active volcanic mountain in East and Central Africa. Mount Nyamuragira had recorded over 50 volcanic eruptions since 1882, with the major volcanoes witnessed in early 1938 when the southeast slope erupted, and mudflows of lave spread up to the Southern regions of Lake Kivu. The volcanic eruptions at Mt. Nyamuragira have not been characterized by fatalities until recently (2021), when an abrupt eruption occurred, extending to over 10 kilometers into the surrounding communities, killing about 30 people and destroying properties valued at hundreds of thousand dollars (Scarlett, and Riede, 2019, p.91). Anak Krakatau and Mt. Nyamuragira are both active volcanic sites formed through the same process of volcanoes, therefore sharing the history of volcanic eruptions. Therefore, the report has researched the prevalence and pattern of a volcanic eruptions in the two locations and derives a conclusion based on the comparative analysis of the pattern between 1992 through 2022. Below is the image of the eruptive Mt. Nyamuragira, DRC.

Volcanic Eruption History of Mt Nyamuragira

Mt. Nyamuragira, DRC (Li et al. 2019, p.27)

Volcanic eruption presents geological risks and hazards that affect the abilities of adjacent communities to make long-term and sustainable development-wise decisions due to the destruction magnitude often attached to a volcanic eruption from active volcanic mountains. Volcanoes also impact human lives and society directly and indirectly since every time eruption starts, people are displaced to other regions due to fear of the encroachment of lava into their neighborhood. This results in the disruption of normalcy in societies. However, these challenges can be averted by establishing a better understanding of the historical timeline of volcanoes of a particular location over time and deriving its historical pattern that experts can interpret to predict the next eruptions. Therefore, the hypothesis is to conduct scientific research and monitor the volcanoes at different locations (Anak Krakatau, Indonesia, and Mt. Nyamuragira, DRC) and prove the hypothesis that volcanic eruptions of Anak Krakatau and Mt. Nyamuragira show frequency increment over the past 30 years (between 1992 to 2022).  

The study utilized several geological data sources, literature publications, historical records on the eruptions in areas of study, volcano monitoring systems, seismic evaluation of the study area, radiocarbon dating, and surveys to extract the relevant information and data-informed the findings of the research. The analysis of this research capitalized and made good use of the large volumes of published literature on the chronological history of volcanic eruptions at Mt. Nyamuragira and Anak Krakatau in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Indonesia respectively. An online search on the database relating to the volcanic eruption in these areas since 1990 availed several datasets that were thoroughly scrutinized to aid in the research findings and prove the research hypothesis. To exercise the quality and reliability of the research methodology, the referred dataset were extracted only from credible and approved sources like government chronology on the volcanic eruption in these two countries, and only works of literature from verified publishers were utilized as the secondary sources of data for the study (Pouclet, and Bram, 2021, p.48).

The study’s objective was to establish scientific proof that volcanoes in the two areas of study have had a predictable pattern or frequency for the past 30 years; therefore, to succinctly extract details of volcanoes, the study resorted to seismic analysis and monitoring of the seismic activities around these sites. For volcanoes to occur, there has to be a series of seismic imbalance within the Earth’s crust that melts the magma and pressure build-up to thrust it upwards to the Earth’s surface through dyke. The process takes time; thus, the study capitalized on the seismic reports and analysis of the regions around Mt. Nyamuragira and Anak Krakatau. Other indirect volcanology methods like radiocarbon dating were also used to analyze the conditions of rocks underneath at the two study sites and use the information to assess the frequency of volcanic activities on the study sites (Morrison et al. 2020, p.41). The prevalence of other natural activities like the prevalence of earthquakes in the regions was also used to accomplish the study objectives. The sourced data from the above-highlighted sources were then harmonized and analyzed, as discussed in the next sections, to inform the conclusion of the research analysis.

Comparison of Historical Patterns

The volcanology analysis established that some seismic activities were recorded prior to the volcanic eruption in each study region (Indonesia and DRC). Historical statistical data obtained from the chronological documentation of the volcanoes prevalence in the regions showed a near-regular pattern with eruptions recorded nearly every year, especially on the coastline of Sumatra and Java in Indonesia. For the past 30 years (1992-2022), Anak Krakatau had experienced volcanic eruptions all these years, with only one exception in 1994, when there was no volcanic eruption. Mt. Nyamuragira’s pattern is different from that of the Krakatau; in Congo, the volcanoes occur at intervals. The variation in the number of volcanic eruptions between Mt. Nyamuragira and Anak Krakatau is because every region and country has unique seismic forces distributions. On another account, the historical records of volcanic eruption and earthquake records since 1990 from seismic and volcano observatory agencies in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Indonesia aided the data extraction for the analysis.

The historical chronology of the Volcanicity prevalence or frequency of occurrence at Mt. Nyamuragira in DRC and Krakatau in Indonesia was analysis in tow perspectives; between 1992 and 2009 and between 2010 and 2022 and tabulated as follows

Table 1: Counts of Volcanic eruptions between 2010 and 2022

 
Table 2: Counts of Volcanic eruptions between 1992 and 2009

The obtained geochronological data was critical for the study as they helped refine the stratigraphy of the study regions (DRC and Indonesia). Due to time constraints and resource limitations, the researchers used the recently updated Goma’s Geochronology Center report to compile the dataset for analysis. Leucite and sanidine crystals of different measurements were obtained from the Sunda Strait location and sent to the national geology center for analysis. The station was equipped with machines and systems to complete geological analysis on the samples. Anak Krakatau volcanoes are the most studied volcanic eruption because it has had more geoscientific reports in the last two decades, and the prevalence and occurrence of a volcanic eruption on the island are unique and special with a yearly record of eruption and most years recording more than two volcanic eruptions. However, the first attempt to fit Anak Krakatau in a petrological and structural framework was in 2010 by Locarde et al. (2010). While at Mt. Nyamuragira, the petrological framework based on the historical pattern was developed in 2007 and 2016, expressing it as a cycle of minimal pyroclastic flows.

Accumulative Eruptive Volume for Mt. Nyamuragira

Accumulative lava levels around Java Island in Indonesia (2005-2022)

A thirty-year (1992-2022) geo-volcanology evaluation enabled the research to reconstruct the volcanoes and their eruptive history of Anak Krakatau, Sunda Strait, Java Island in Indonesia, and Mt. Nyamuragira, Goma in the Democratic Republic of Congo, both stratified as active volcanic fields. The regions between Sumatra and Java Islands are modeled by volcano-tectonic and volcanic processes, partly masked by the earthquakes that are believed to aid the frequent volcanic eruptions in Krakatau Island. On the other hand, the research established that lava domes formed the ancient core of Mt. Nyamuragira’s hills and coalescent tuff cones (Novellino, et al. 2020, p.79). These make the underneath solid to prevent frequent volcanic eruptions of the mountain.

Impact on Society

The formation of Mt. Nyamuragira left thick and hard cells of pyroclastic deposits consisting of large caldera-forming phlegraean tephra, ignimbrites, and monogenetic vents that suppress the outburst of magma, thus minimizing the number of eruptions. The eastern areas towards Lake Kivu in Congo did not experience an eruption until 2021. An unexpected eruption occurred, forcing hot magma to flow towards the settlement area, thus killing over 30 people. The last eruption on the Eastern region of Mt. Nyamuragira extending to the shores of Lake Kivu was in 1883, and it was a mild eruption. For over a century, the region had not recorded any eruption; thus, people moved to settle in this region since it had been deemed safe from volcanic hazards. While at Krakatau in Indonesia, the pattern of volcanic eruption is predictable. Since 1992 there has been an active volcano on the island, thus explaining the low human activities in the regions between Sumatra and Java Islands. Therefore, the historical tracks of eruption activities at Krakatau indicate that this island is in a proactive volcanic field.

Krakatau’s volcanic eruptions vary in character and size, the earliest eruptions alternate effusive and explosive stile (paleo-degree period). These are characteristics of ancient monogenetic vents showing the east to west trends and the reactivated vents, thus explaining the caldera’s collapse. The island has never missed an active volcanic eruption in the past twenty-five years, with the highest recorded volcanoes being 15 in 1996, 1997, and 2009. Between 1996 and 1997, the island experienced the highest volcanoes because either the seawater or the ground came in contact with hot rising magma, resulting in phreatomagmatic eruptions. In 2009, the island experienced the collapse of two calderas caused by the phreatoplinian and Plinian, which explains the high count of eruptions. From 2010 through to 202, the count of active volcanic eruptions has considerably fallen and maintained at an average of 3 per year, and this trend was achieved after the installation of the sustained columns and depressed pyroclastic materials at the shipping area of Sumatra and Java (Walter et al., 2020, p.33). The eruption in 2011 is described as the phreatoplinian eruption because it was initiated by the pulsating eruptive seismic and earthquake.

Conclusion 

The study employed scientific comparison analysis on the volcanic eruption trends for two world apart sites; Mt. Nyamuragira in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Anak Krakatau in Sunda Strait, Java Island in Indonesia. The derived dataset for the analysis provides a perfect projection of the recent trends in the field of volcano geodesy. The catastrophic volcanic eruption of Krakatau in 1883 changed the trajectory of handling and dealing with the eruptions at the Sumatra and Java Islands of Indonesia. On the DRC side, Mt. Nyamuragira had established sporadic lave dome episodes that have limited the counts of magma eruptions in the Goma region. The Goma and Lake Kivu regions surrounding the mountain plains have experienced the least volcanic eruptions for the past three decades, with the highest count being four recorded in 2001. However, in Congo, the eruptions have been on toward the Northern side of the mount, with the Southern regions of Lake Kivu experiencing the latest eruption in 2021 with the highest count of casualties in over two decades.

The monogenetic volcanoes of the two locations are very similar in terms of stratified succession of the massive, matrix-supported, and graded deposits of lava. The pyroclastic density at Mt. Nyamuragira shows a stable stratification of the lava on the mountain, thus explaining the least count of volcanicity on the mountain. While on the other hand, the frequent turbulence of ocean tides and waves cause a collision of tectonic forces underneath the island, thus catalyzing the eruption of magma, explaining the highest counts and frequent of volcanicity on the island. Additionally, the study has established the eruption frequency on both sites (Mt. Nyamuragira in DRC and Krakatau in Indonesia are attributed to subaerial, quiescent periods and activities of tectonic activities underneath the mountain and the island, thus proving the research hypothesis that Volcanic Eruptions of Mt Nyamuragira and Krakatau show frequency increment over the last 30 years (From 1992 to present).

References

Habakaramo, P., Mutalegwa, G., Kahuranyi, J. and Karume, K., 2019. The Virunga volcanoes in the Eastern of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, A popular perception: Myth or reality?. DISASTERS, pp.102-117.

Heidarzadeh, M., Ishibe, T., Sandanbata, O., Muhari, A. and Wijanarto, A.B., 2020. Numerical modeling of the subaerial landslide source of the 22 December 2018 Anak Krakatoa volcanic tsunami, Indonesia. Ocean Engineering, 195, p.106733.

Li, L., Bakelants, L., Solana, C., Canters, F. and Kervyn, M., 2018. Dating lava flows of tropical volcanoes by means of spatial modeling of vegetation recovery. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 43(4), pp.840-856.

McLean, D., Albert, P.G., Suzuki, T., Nakagawa, T., Kimura, J.I., Chang, Q., MacLeod, A., Blockley, S., Staff, R.A., Yamada, K. and Kitaba, I., 2020. Refining the eruptive history of Ulleungdo and Changbaishan volcanoes (East Asia) over the last 86 kyrs using distal sedimentary records. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 389, p.106669.

Morrison, A.A., Whittington, A., Smets, B., Kervyn, M. and Sehlke, A., 2020. The rheology of crystallizing basaltic lavas from Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira volcanoes, DRC. Volcanica, 3(1), pp.1-28.

Novellino, A., Engwell, S.L., Grebby, S., Day, S., Cassidy, M., Madden-Nadeau, A., Watt, S., Pyle, D., Abdurrachman, M., Edo Marshal Nurshal, M. and Tappin, D.R., 2020. Mapping recent shoreline changes spanning the lateral collapse of Anak Krakatau Volcano, Indonesia. Applied Sciences, 10(2), p.536.

Pouclet, A. and Bram, K., 2021. Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira: a review of volcanic activity in the Kivu rift, western branch of the East African Rift System. Bulletin of Volcanology, 83(2), pp.1-35.

Scarlett, J.P. and Riede, F., 2019. The dark geocultural heritage of volcanoes: combining cultural and geoheritage perspectives for mutual benefit. Geoheritage, 11(4), pp.1705-1721.

Shnyukov, E. and Yanko-Hombach, V., 2020. History of the Geological Study of Mud Volcanoes in the Black Sea Region. In Mud Volcanoes of the Black Sea Region and their Environmental Significance (pp. 1-20). Springer, Cham.

Walter, T.R., Haghshenas Haghighi, M., Schneider, F.M., Coppola, D., Motagh, M., Saul, J., Babeyko, A., Dahm, T., Troll, V.R., Tilmann, F. and Heimann, S., 2019. Complex hazard cascade culminating in the Anak Krakatau sector collapse. Nature communications, 10(1), pp.1-11.

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