Cueing Systems
Part 1
Cueing systems
The cueing systems can either be grouped as a four cueing system or a three cueing system. The four cueing systems include syntactic, pragmatic, grapho-phonemic and semantic. The cueing systems are attributes that are used in the development of language and play a very important role in communication (Adams, 2003). All the four systems are used simultaneously by people when they speak, write or read. In the absence of the cueing systems, readers would not be able to comprehend texts whenever they read. A reader may tend to rely heavily on a particular cueing system based on the nature of the text that is being read. I too agree fully with the assumptions of the cueing system theory given the fact that there are variations in the nature of texts that we read. The texts vary in structure, pronunciation and even the kind of emotions that they may develop in the reader (Hughes, 2007).
There are several practical implications of the theory that influence the activities and strategies that one might decide to use in the classroom. Teachers must use all the cueing systems in the classroom learning in order to come up with meaningful statements from texts. For example if a teacher want to explain that a girl jumped over something, them he or she must bring out the cueing systems in his or her statement. The item must be something that someone can jump over (sematic cue). The teacher must also recall that there are just some particular things that people can jump over (pragmatic cue)
Automaticity theory
Automaticity theory derives its name from the word “automatic”. The theory refers to the ability of learners to develop a skill such that they are able to identify and instantly process information without necessarily taking time to think about the information. I partially agree with this theory because it is not something that human beings are borne with. It is skill that learners develop in the process of their learning (Sprenger, 2013).
Fast learners develop the skill faster while slow learners may face challenges in developing the skill. A child may also fail to develop the skill if she or he fails to secure an access to a learning environment. In reference treading in a learning class, automaticity refers to the ability of learners to look upon words and be able to read them in loud voice. In this case, the learner doesn’t take a great in-depth look at the words before they are read. This theory encourages teachers to encourage learners to look at letters and be able to identify them (Sprenger, 2013). The learners are then taught on how to combine the letters to form words.
Schema theory
Schema theory explains how learners use their prior knowledge in the comprehension and learning of text. I fully agree with the theory because leaners come into any learning environment when they have already acquired some knowledge. It is upon the stimulation of the old knowledge that the learners learn many other new ideas. It is therefore necessary that teachers try to draw a relationship between the ideas that learners are yet to learn and those that they have learned and very knowledgeable about (An, 2013).
Automaticity Theory
I fully agree with the theory as a whole. I cannot be assumed that children are illiterate until they start acquiring formal education. There are very many things that children learn right from their moment of birth. A good example is a case whereby a child will be able to differentiate the voice of his or her mother from any other voices. The theory therefore suggests that people should engage their children in activities that promote literacy among them even before they attain the age of school going. Such activities include storytelling, involving children in conversations and appreciating the children for all the efforts that they make towards literacy.
Transactional theory
Transactional theory affirms that printed words play a very important role in the development of learners. The theory also confirms that the learner’s knowledge and early life experience are equally important in the development of learners. I fully agree with the theory because it is easier for learners to recall things that they have seen as opposed to things that they have just been told (Galda, 2013).
The theory influences the manner in which teachers should engage their learners in classrooms. Before learners are introduced to reading of texts, the teachers should first lead by example by reading aloud in front of the learners so that they can appreciate and learn how texts make meanings when they are read. The teacher would then thereafter guide the learners in reading.
Part 2
Emerging literacy
Emerging literacy refer to the idea that learning in children begins when the children are still at their tender age, quite long before the children attain their official school going ages. The term therefore describes the reading and writing knowledge that children acquire before they are taught the skills. According to emergent literacy, children start the process of becoming literate right from the very moment that they are born (Whitehead, 2009).
Critical elements influencing children’s early reading and writing skills and Why
All children start the process of becoming literate just immediately they are born. However, there are certain elements that determine the rate at which the children become literate. Children therefore tend to learn how to read and write at varying pace. The elements include vocabulary development in the child, time that the parents spend with the children, teaching them how to read, parental beliefs and finally the classroom environment (Whitehead, 2009).
Vocabulary development
Children must develop an understanding of basic vocabulary before they are able to acquire skills of reading and writing. Children, who are frequently engaged in conversations regarding past and future events, tend to develop their language vocabulary much faster (Probst, 1987). Children from high socioeconomic status also develop language vocabulary faster since they are exposed to a variety of things such as lynch notes that promote their vocabulary development.
Reading out aloud
The literacy of children develops faster when their parents are able to read out books and other prints aloud to them. The parents are also able to develop meaningful interactions with their children in the process (Probst, 1987).
Schema Theory
Parental beliefs
Parent who have good understanding of literacy development tend to support their children’s literacy development. Parents who don’t understand the necessity of literacy development on the other hand would not make any effort in promoting literacy development among their children.
Classroom environment
A classroom environment that exposes children to a variety of activities that promote literacy development equally gives the children great opportunity of developing their literacy skills. Children in such classroom environment tend to be miles ahead of their fellow who are in classroom environments that don’t promote literacy development.
Activities/strategies that teachers use to promote children’s emerging literacy
There are a wide range of activities/ strategies that I can use as a teacher in promoting children’s emerging literacy.
Encouraging the children to write
Children are likely to be discouraged when they start to write. It takes a lot of courage for a child to continue writing. It is therefore important to encourage children to write. As a teacher, I would buy crayons, markers, papers and note books for children and encourage them to write. I would also appreciate their effort as they make attempts to write (Tarat & Sucaromana, 2014).
Exposing the children to books that they love
Exposing children to good books creates an impression of reading in them. As a teacher, I would invite the children in the school library to help me in selecting reading books. I would then read the book together with the children. If we don’t enjoy any given book, then we would pick on another book.
Reading in turns
As a teacher, I would read a paragraph to the children as they listen. I would then encourage the children also to read in turns as I listen to them. I would then express to the children how proud I feel when they are able to read and also give gifts to them.
If I am not a teacher, then I would tell stories to the children. Children are fond of mimics. Whenever stories are told to them, they would also narrate the stories to others. In addition, I would use the television as a teaching tool. We would set the time for watching TV together and thereafter discus the events that we would have watched over the television.
Part 3
Definition and concept of phonics instruction
Phonics instruction is the method of teaching reading while stressing on the learners’ acquisition of the associated letter sound and the roles of the letter sounds in reading as well as in spelling. Phonics instruction therefore focuses mainly in assisting learners to understand the relationship that exist between letter –sounds and their corresponding spelling patterns. Learners are therefore able to apply the knowledge whenever they are reading (Mustafa, 2008).
The role of phonics instruction in reading and writing
Phonics is a major source of information that learners rely on in order to understand the meaning of texts when they are reading. Knowledge of the relationship between letters and sounds promote reading among learners. Students also use phonics to establish the structure of language that they learn (Vaughn & Thompsons, 2007).
Transactional Theory
Discussion of activities/strategies that will promote students’ word study and vocabulary growth
Development of vocabulary is a very important aspect in the education of learners. Research has shown that students with larger vocabularies in lower classes have equally been able to record high academic grades in their upper classes. It is therefore important for teachers to formulate strategies that would promote the development of learners’ vocabularies and word study (Leipzig, 2016). The following are some of the strategies that should be used
- Dictionary games
Timed competitions should be set up among students. The students should be grouped according to their sitting arrangement or any other criteria. The groups should then be set to compete against each other. Such games motivate the students to work hard in improving their vocabulary.
- Finding words
In this case, the students are required to note down all the words that are being studied in the classroom whenever they come across them when reading texts. By so doing, the students are able to view the words from different dimensions. The vocabulary knowledge of the students hence deepens in the process (Pikulki, 2007).
- Word experts
Every student is encouraged to learn as many words as possible. The students are then instructed to teach the words to their peers. A present is then given to the student who teaches most words to his or her pears (Blau L, 2001).
- Word of the day program
Students in the classroom submit several words to the teacher for consideration. The teacher then identifies one word out of the many presented words. The students then commit to use the selected word as many as possible in all their conversations during the day.
- Connect words
The teacher present two lists of words on the board. Students are then instructed to select a word at random from the first list and then make a connection between the word and any other word in the second list. They should also provide an explanation as to why such connection should exist (Vaughn & Thompsons, 2007).
Conclusion
It is necessary to encourage children to stress letter sounds when reading and spelling. Stressing of the sounds enables the children to understand the relationship that exist between various words during reading and spelling of such words. The understanding of the connection is very important and necessary in the teaching of languages to children. Every teacher should take it upon his or her responsibility in ensuring that best practices are exercised in the teaching of language to learners.
Part 4
Fluency in reading
Fluency refers to the ability to accurately and quickly read texts with expressions. Fluency provides a connection between recognition and comprehension of words. Fluent readers are capable of silently reading such that they automatically recognize words. Such readers quickly groups words and understand the meaning of the words as they read them.
Reading comprehension
Reading comprehension refers to learners’ ability to read written texts, interpret them and develop an understanding of their meanings. In order to understand the meaning of texts, students must be able to develop a connection between what they are reading and what they have already learned (Blau L, 2001).
Emerging Literacy
The relationship between fluency and comprehension
Fluency and comprehension have a rather complex relationship. Fluency is the predictor that determines whether a student would be able to read a comprehension or not. It sets the ground for comprehension skills. When students have developed fluency skills then they would be able to shift their attention and focus on comprehension. It is at the comprehension stage where the students would be able to make an interpretation of the texts that they read. It is often said that there is a close relationship between fluency and comprehension. As a result, non-fluency among students greatly hinders effective comprehension in such students. If learners put a lot of focus in their reading skills then, they are not likely to encounter challenges when it comes to comprehension.
Discussion of strategies or activities which will help students to become fluent
The following are the strategies that will help students to become fluent.
- Model fluent reading
The best way of improving students’ fluency is by often reading texts aloud to them. The reading should also be done with lots of passion. In so doing, the students should be exposed to a wide variety of texts. There should be poetry, speeches, lyrical language, folk tales and many others. The students should also be given room to read aloud, after which they should share their experience.
- Promotion of repeated readings
Repeated readings should be encouraged among the students. The students would then be able to identify words that are pronounced faster, improving their reading ability. Selected short passages should be provided to students so that they can read them repeatedly and aloud (Walpole, S., & McKenna, M. C, 2007).
- Promote reading of phrases in class
Students are able to improve on their fluency when they are encouraged to read phrases instead of word by word.
- Assign tutors to offer assistance
Non-fluent readers may be assisted further by assigning other tutors to them further. The tutors and the student can decide to read some texts together and a loud. There are some students who become shy in the presence of their subject teacher. Such students would feel free when being taught by other teachers.
Conclusion
Fluency and comprehension are two aspects which are more or less inter-twinned together. However, a learner must be a fluent reader in order to comfortably read comprehensions. Fluency promotes the connection that exists between cognition and comprehension of words. Every teacher should teach fluency among learners until they are very fluent. Thereafter, the learners should be introduced to comprehension of words. By so doing, the learner would be able to apply the skills that he or she had learnt earlier. Such skills are necessary in the interpretation or words that the learners would read.
References
Adams, M. (2003). Adams, M. J. (2003). The three cueing system. Retrieved on March 25th, 2017 from https://www.balancedreading.com/3cue-adams.html.
An, S. (2013). Schema theory in reading. Theory and practice in language studies, 130-134.
Blau L. (2001). 5 surefire strategies for developing reading fluency. Instructor, 28-30.
Galda, L. (2013). Learning from children reading books: Transactional theory and the teaching of literature. Journal of Children’s Literature, 5-13.
Hughes, J. (2007). The four cueing systems. Retrieved on March 25th, 2017 from https://faculty.uoit.ca/hughes/Oral_Visual_Literacy/CueingSystems.html.
Leipzig, D. (2016). Word study: A new approach to teaching spelling. Retrieved from Reading Rockets: https://www.readingrockets.org/article/80
Mustafa, M. (2008). Whole to parts phonics instruction. . Retrieved from https://instructional1.calstatela.edu/mmousta/Whole-to-Parts_Phonics_Instruction.htm.
Pikulki, J. (2007). Teaching word-identification skills and strategies: A balanced approach. Retrieved March 25th 2017 from https://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/teach/.
Probst, R. (1987). Transactional Theory in the Teaching of Literature. Retrieved March 25th 2017 from https://www.ericdigests.org/pre-926/theory.htm.
Reading , A. (2012). A lesson plan of phonics instruction. Retrieved February 2012 from https://www.readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?id=157. A lesson plan: Whole-to-Parts Phonics Instruction: Teaching Letter-Sound Correspondences.
Sprenger, M. B. (2013). Wiring the Brain for Reading: Brain-Based Strategies for Teaching Literacy. Somerset, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons. New Jersey: Wiley & Sons.
Tarat, S., & Sucaromana, L. (2014). An investigation of the balanced literacy approach for enhancing phonemic awareness of Thai first-grade students. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2265-2272.
Vaughn, S., & Thompsons, L. (2007). Research-Based Methods of Reading Instruction for English Language Learners, Grades K-4. . Alexandria, VA, USA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Walpole, S., & McKenna, M. C. (2007). Differentiated reading instruction: Strategies for the primary grades. New York, NY, USA: . New York, USA: Guilford Press.
Whitehead, M. (2009). Supporting Language and Literacy Development in the Early Years (2nd Edition). Berkshire, GBR: Open University Press. Berkshire: GBR Open University Press.
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