Design Concept
Dead, live, and snow weights all fall in the same direction as gravity (i.e., downhill or vertically). They may be broken down into the following groups: Static, and they might be seen as an equally dispersed or concentrated load, depending on the circumstances. The concept of tributary regions makes it feasible to allocate loads to structural components, making calculating the gravity load on a beam or column simple. The tributary region refers to that part of a structure where one or more structural elements carry the applied loads and the structure’s dead weight. Select a typical beam or column model for beam equations. Structural systems may be challenging to predict significantly if they deviate from the standard engineering assumptions of rigid bodies and elastic behavior. Structural deviations from average assumptions are significant to the design of a house since they affect many different parts of the structure, yet to varying degrees.
Furthermore, wind pressures are generated parallel to the building surface (rather than gravitationally). These pressures vary concerning the quantity of tributary area and its location on the structure, mainly when it’s next to variations in geometrical arrangement (Jalil and Tang 41). Earthquakes may also generate vertical ground movement or acceleration, which increases the gravitational stress’s impact on its surroundings. A light-frame structure’s gravity load analysis, on the other hand, frequently assumes that vertical earthquake loads are handled implicitly.
Structural movement is exacerbated by lateral strains caused by wind, floods, and soil movement that cause a structure to wobble. Wind and earthquake lateral loads affect the whole building. When the wind pressures on the windward side of the building are positive, and the wind pressures on the windward side of the building are negative, the building experiences lateral forces due to the wind. During earthquakes, a structure’s dynamic inertial response to cyclic ground movement generates lateral stresses. When the ground movement and mass of the building are known, it is possible to compute the seismic shear (or lateral) load. Consideration is given to the dynamic structural response characteristics of the structure (i.e., dampening, ductility, the natural period of vibration, etc.). It is common practice to utilize a simplified seismic load estimate for low-rise buildings such as dwellings. It combines Newtonian physics (F=ma) with specific subjective (i.e., experience-based) changes to account for the inelastic and ductile response qualities of different construction systems, such as concrete and steel. A well-constructed foundation or avoiding construction in a flood plain may greatly minimize or eliminate flood loads. Flowing water and static hydraulic pressure produce lateral stresses that must be considered. When building foundation walls, lateral soil loads play a crucial role in providing the wall with “out of plane” bending stress. Other than that, lateral stresses generate an overturning motion that must be accounted for by the structure’s dead weight and connections. When constructing a structure, it is also necessary to consider overturning stresses on connections to avoid components from spinning or the building from overturning. When a roof is subjected to both uplift and lateral wind loads, the overturning tension forces induced by the wind load’s lateral component are amplified. This is a regular occurrence.
Vertical Loads
We know that the foundation might be shallow or deep, depending on the water level. A footing foundation is a form of shallow foundation used in building composed of materials such as brick masonry or concrete. Underneath the structure, they are typically constructed. It is essential to know how the loading system and the load path work within a structure in civil engineering. Slabs are placed on top of beams that carry the load to columns, which transfer the weight to the foundation, as discussed above. Loads are transferred to the ground or soil underneath your construction at this stage. Most structural projects entail excavation to find the hard stratum on which the foundation may sit without settling worries since the foundation must rest on hard strata. The footing foundation must be designed using a variety of methods. The following are the steps to follow:
A thorough analysis of the soil under a building, including a soil bearing capacity (SBC) report and a list of the soil types identified beneath the structure, is necessary. Using this data, engineers may choose the best foundation for the project based on its load-bearing capabilities.
Structural analysis software is available from a variety of sources. Structural analysis is required to identify the various reactions, shear forces, and bending moment forces on the structural components, especially the supports. The following is an example of a scenario: It is necessary to construct a G+2 structure and adhere to a structural design approach to create each component of the structure. Any FEA program on the market today may be used to model and evaluate the structure. We require two things when the structural research is complete: (1) the column responses related to footing foundations and (2) the column positions established by the structural study.
Once we’ve completed our analysis and received our FEA software’s end-column replies, we must design in compliance with the local standards. Calculations may be done by hand or with the help of Foundation Design Software at this point of the project. The kind of foundation you want to create, such as an isolated foundation, the grade of concrete used, the grade of steel used, and the structural code to design according to national standards are some of the data entered into the foundation design software. The column location and response data from the structural analysis software are imported as part of this method. During the design of a concrete foundation, the following are some of the most common design checks:
The overturning check may be carried out once the overturning safety factor has been calculated. The total of resisting moments divided by the total of overturning moments is used to determine this factor. In most circumstances, this factor should be more than or equal to 1.5.
Before conducting the sliding check, it is required to determine the sliding safety factor, which is derived by multiplying the friction coefficient between concrete and soil by its weight and dividing it by the lateral forces acting on the footing. For the most part, this factor should be more than or equal to 1.5 in most circumstances.
Lateral Loads
To ensure that the concrete structure is robust enough to resist the stresses generated during construction, structural tests such as one- and two-way shear checks and flexure checks in both directions are carried out. Structural design calculations are done following design codes once again.
To arrive at the final footing foundation design, the overturning sliding safety factor and the soil-concrete friction coefficient must be input into a design software program. A trained engineer will reduce the amount of material needed by reducing the amount of concrete and steel used while still following the design code’s minimal specifications. Engineers may experiment with different foundation sizes, reinforcing arrangements, and the quantity of reinforcement required when building a structure to get a more cost-effective solution while preserving structural strength and safety. If the structure is not functioning correctly, it is common to change some input (such as reinforcement or footing size) to improve its overall design. Many structural processes are involved in designing a footing foundation. For example, completing soil research, conducting a structural analysis of the model structure to get column responses, creating a foundation, and improving the structure. If you don’t already know what you’re doing, this should give you a good idea.
The load-bearing skeleton is an example of a rigid frame in structural engineering because it is made up of straight or curved pieces connected by mostly rigid links that prevent movement at joints. It can sustain bending moments, shear loads, and axial loads due to its structural elements. Assumptions that the structure’s beams are free to spin at their connections and that its components are so tightly connected that the angles they form with one another do not alter when it is loaded are two of the most often held beliefs. In terms of stiffness, intermediate stiffness connections will lie somewhere in between these two extremes. In building, semirigid frames are commonly used frameworks with connections of medium stiffness. Rigid Frame, Simple Frame, and Partially Restrained Frame are the three primary kinds of frames recognized by AISC standards.
Materials that are less harmful to the environment than traditional ones are being developed for use in research and manufacture. Using reclaimed or recycled materials saves money on your initial construction costs by reducing or even eliminating some of them. Several of these materials are becoming increasingly common, while the cost of traditional materials continues to grow. The ever-increasing number of construction rules and regulations in place may be easier to comply with by using a construction management service (Yang, et al 54). Cross-cutting study topics such as avoiding disproportionate collapse, catastrophe and failure studies, and the specific risks of extreme winds and coastal floods are part of the program’s effort to build resilience and robustness.
The building envelope and thermal facility must be designed in unison to generate an envelope suited to the outside conditions. Heating and cooling may be reduced to the absolute minimum in this way. Building envelope components that utilize natural resources, such as the sun, wind, and other natural resources, to heat or cool the structure are passive systems. However, a system that runs at a low temperature is required to maintain comfort in the winter. A yearly event in Frankfurt, Germany, Fenercom 2017 is a trade fair. The use of night ventilation, appropriate shading devices, reduction of internal gains, and insulating materials with adequate thermal capacities can achieve moderate thermal conditions in the summer. As a result, cold sources that do not have shallow temperatures can be used for air conditioning. However, to provide an excellent environment, a cooling facility is often necessary.
Footings and Foundations
This system may be divided into two parts: the conditioned area, where energy is used, and the conditioning system, where diverse energy sources are transformed into suitable forms and where essential services are provided to the conditioned space (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning). As the essential variables, temperature and flow rate are collected in a thermodynamic assessment of a heating and air conditioning system. As a first step in the analysis, several tests must be carried out to ensure the validity of the data. To identify the thermodynamic properties of the fluxes part of the system, it is necessary to combine this data with information on working substances. Next, mass and energy balances are carried out, and as a consequence, new information is uncovered or old data is checked.
Autodesk’s Ecotect energy modeling application was used to conduct the thermal analysis. A program for environmentally friendly building design. Ecotect is an entirely sustainable building design software from idea to detail. Architects like it because of the simplicity it allows them to modify model attributes on-the-fly and the speed with which they can run big models. The Ecotect technique might begin with producing a three-dimensional (3D) shell that represents the building’s form. There are two methods to do this: either draw floor plans that show the boundaries of the rooms, then build a 3D model room by room, or import the model as a gbXML file from another 3D modeling application, such as AutoCAD, to finish the work. For this study, 3D models of surfaces and rooms were imported from AutoCAD into Ecotect.
A building’s thermal characteristics are assigned after import, and the investigation may proceed from there. Concrete walls, slabs, glass walls, etc., are designated as their primary material (R-value). Then the insulation is placed following the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) requirements as defined in the IECC’s guidelines. Following that, a weather file for each selected climate zone will be allocated with information on current occupants and plans for use. To calculate heating and cooling loads, the computer will use the climate parameters that have been inputted into the system. Every model (central, edge, half sides, and sides) must undergo a thermal analysis to establish its performance in each climate (cool, temperate, arid, and tropical). On average, each of the 16 simulations will take around 24 hours to complete. Climate zone-specific data (TMY files) is supplied to each model, and all four models are tested using the same thermal parameters. Thus, the only things that differ across runs in different temperature zones are the floor plan shape and placements of the structural core/walls. The hygrothermal effects of moisture sorption and desorption in building materials are not considered in this research. A program that helps you mimic the environment. With Ecotect, you can see how the amount of solar radiation affects your building’s heating and cooling requirements (Bishara, et al 24). The climatic zone determines the temperature: For example, in a tropical climate, cooling loads prevail while heating requirements are minimal (if not nonexistent) year-round. To reduce cooling loads in the low zone, direct heat gain from sun insolation must be reduced to a minimum.
It is critical to maximizing your energy efficiency as feasible during the construction process. To execute a job, you must spend more energy using outdated or antiquated tools and equipment. An effective way to guarantee that your activities use the least energy possible is by routinely updating and maintaining your machinery, equipment, and tools. The less energy you use in the long term, the more productive and efficient you become.
Materials that are less harmful to the environment than traditional ones are being developed for use in research and manufacture. Using reclaimed or recycled materials saves money on your initial construction costs by reducing or even eliminating some of them. Several of these materials are becoming increasingly common, while the cost of traditional materials continues to grow. The ever-increasing number of construction rules and regulations in place may be easier to comply with by using a construction management service.
Building projects create a lot of waste, so it’s essential to plan ahead of time. Reducing the quantity of rubbish, you produce should be prepared, monitored, and documented. Make an effort to look for products that can be recycled or reused. To minimize waste, make the most of your resources while minimizing the need for more materials to the degree practicable. You should utilize reusable products, such as inflatable bladder dams to safeguard your property as much as possible.
Bishara, Majeed, et al. “A structural design concept for a multi-shell Blended Wing Body with laminar flow control.” Energies 11.2 (2018): 383.
Jalil Abdullah, Rebaz, and Tang Jian. “Using Structural Equation Modeling to Propose a Model for Shopping Complex Design Based on Universal Design Concept.” Sustainability 11.6 (2019): 1797.
Yang, Zhenjun, et al. “Structural design and performance evaluation of FeCo/epoxy magnetostrictive composites.” Composites Science and Technology 210 (2021): 108840.
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