Question 1
|
Cell name |
Where would you usually expect to find these types if cells |
Primary role |
|
Parietal cell |
Gastric glands in the stomach. |
Secrete intrinsic factor and HCl |
|
Melanocytes |
Hair follicles and the epidermis |
Production of melanin to protect underlying tissues from harmful UV rays. |
|
Pacemaker cells |
Sinoatrial node i.e within the wall of the atrium near opening of the superior venacava -Atrioventicular node i.e between the right ventricles and right atrium within the atrial septum -Along the interventricular septum -In the inner ventricular walls of the heart , beneath the endocardium |
Spontaneous depolarise to trigger contraction of cardiac muscles. Establishes the heart rate |
|
Osteocyte |
Spaces of the vertebra bones |
-Bone remodelling and repair. – Controlling mineral balance or ion exchange. |
|
Red blood cells/erythrocytes |
Haemoglobin |
Contains large quantities of haemoglobin, enabling it to bind plus transport respiratory gases |
|
Chief cells |
Deep mucosal layer of the stomach lining |
Responsible for secretion of pepsinogen and chymosin in ruminants |
|
The pressure driven movement of water and solutes from the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule is best-described as tufts. |
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The movement of glucose into cells via glucose transporter proteins is an example of facilitated diffusion. |
|
Cells lining the small intestine continue to absorb glucose, even when glucose concentrations are much higher in the cells compared to the intestinal contents. This is because the glucose is entering the cell via the process of facilitated diffusion or active transport |
|
When a micelle contacts the intestinal epithelium, the fatty acids move into the cells via lymph. |
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In the thick ascending limb of the nephron loop, Na+ and Cl– are removed from the tubular fluid via co-transporter |
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ADH facilitates the insertion of aquaporins into the apical plasma membranes of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting system. These channel proteins allow water to move out of the tubular fluid via vasa recta |
The action potential spreads along the sarcolemma , until it reaches a T-tubule. The action potential continues down the T-tubule where it triggers the release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This exposes binding sites myosin heads bind to the exposed sites on myofilament to form cross-bridges.
|
scenario |
Type of immunity |
|
Bacterial septicaemia (bacterial contamination in systemic circulation |
Specific (cell-mediated immunity) |
|
The pH of hydrochloric acid in the stomach act to destroy ingested bacteria |
Non-specific (first line defence) |
|
A liver cell mutates and becomes cancerous |
Specific (antibody-mediated) |
|
A virus multiplies inside the epithelial cells in your throat |
Specific (cell mediated immunity) |
|
ADH Hormone |
Aldosterone |
|
|
What is synthesised in this hormone? |
Neurones in the supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus |
Zona glomerulosa in the adrenal gland |
|
Gland that secretes this hormone |
Posterior pituitary gland |
Adrenal gland |
|
Facultative or obligatory re-absorption? |
Facultative re-absorption |
Obligatory |
|
Mechanism of action |
Controls the concentration of urine. Pituitary gland below the skin produces ADH which is released into the blood stream and travels into the blood to the kidneys |
The hormones act in renal collection ducts to strike re-absorption of sodium ions and secretion of potassium and hydrogen ions |
|
Parameter |
Normal values |
Sample 1 |
Sample 2 |
|
Colour |
Yellow |
Dark yellow |
Reddish tinge |
|
Glucose |
Negative |
Positive |
Negative |
|
Bilirubin |
Negative |
Negative |
Positive |
|
Ketones |
Negative |
++ |
— |
|
Specific gravity |
1010-1030 |
1.039 |
1.010 |
|
Blood |
Negative |
— |
++ |
|
PH |
5-6 |
5.5 |
6.0 |
|
Protein |
Negative or traces (<30mg/dl) |
++ |
++ |
|
Nitrite |
Negative |
++ |
++ |
|
Leucocytes |
Negative |
++ |
++ |
- What personal protective equipment should be worn when handling someone else’s urine? Explain. (1 mark)
Gloves-when handling body fluids like urine or equipments containing body fluids or touching someone else’s mucous membrane or broken skin as well as doing invasive procedures it is advisable to wear protective gloves to prevent contraction of the fluids that may lead to infections or diseases.
- Compare the normal and sample values. List any abnormalities you observe in the section below. Are they higher or lower than normal?
The colour change in sample 2 changes from yellow to reddish tinge
- Give a situation in which you might expect to see these changes in an otherwise healthy A situation where a person uses drugs
- What might have been happening in the nephron to cause these abnormal results? Explain your observed abnormalities by linking them with the part of the nephron involved and the process involved (ie filtration, secretion or reabsorption). Ensure that any relationships between the abnormal readings are made clear in your response. It compromises kidney function by promoting liver disease.
Why is injury to the medulla oblongata frequently fatal?
The brain stem or medulla oblongata controls the autonomic functions of the brain such as breathing, digestions and heart rate to mention just a few. However, damaging it will disrupt these functions and since they are essential to living, the result will be death or life long hospitalization with life support for the patent or victim
|
Picture |
Name of phase |
Description of phase |
|
a) |
Vascular spasm phase |
A cut blood vessel constricts due to inherent vascular response to injury as well as induced vasoconstriction. The constriction slows blood flow via the defect and then prevents blood loss. Since this measure alone cannot prevent further blood l, it minimizes blood flow via a break in the vessel until when the other homeostatic measure is able to plug up the defect. |
|
b) |
Platelet plug formation |
Platelets join to form a plug at the cut vessel. They(platelets ) don’t stick to smooth endothelia surfaces of the blood vessel , however when the lining is damaged due to vessel injury, platelets becomes activated by the exposed collagen and immediately sticks to the collagen to form a homeostatic plug at the cut site. |
|
c) |
Blood clotting |
Blood clotting is due to a chain reaction involving plasma clotting factors. Clotting is transformation of blood from a liquid state into a solid gel. The formation of clot on the platelet plug makes the plug stronger by reinforcing a seal over a cut in the vessel. Blood clotting in this phase helps prevent bleeding from any imminent defect. |
|
Picture |
Vessel type? |
Identifying cause |
Layer of vessel |
Notable because |
Relates to vessel |
|
a) |
Elastic artery |
Have thick walls made of three layers |
Tunica adventitia |
Because it contains blood vessels and nerves |
Acts as a supportive vessel |
|
b) |
Continuous capillary |
Are small in size and the walls are single cell thick |
Media and adventitia muscles |
Have a continuous basal laminae |
They convey blood between venules and arterioles |
|
c) |
venule |
Narrow layer of smooth muscle cells |
Three tunics |
Presence of simple off-the –shelf tube |
Allows blood to return from the capillary beds to drain into the larger blood vessels, |
|
d) |
Muscular artery |
Has three layers |
tunica externa. |
Because it contains blood vessels and nerves |
Acts as a supportive vessel |
|
Mechanism |
Body temperature |
Blood pressure |
Mechanism: blood clotting Hormone: Thrombin |
|
Role |
Maintaining body temperature within narrow, optimal limits |
Maintaining normal blood pressure in the body |
Preventing excessive bleeding |
|
Receptor |
Thermoreceptor in skin |
Baroreceptors in the heart |
platelets |
|
Control centre |
Brain (hypothalamus |
Brain |
Blood vessels |
|
Effector |
Sweat glands and arterioles near the skin |
Heart and blood vessels |
Platelets and proteins in the plasma |
|
Positive or negative feedback? |
Negative |
Negative |
Positive |
a)What is the mother’s genotype? Explain your reasoning.
Genotype is XDXd
Reason: Duchenne is carried on the x chromosome and since it is a recessive sex linked disorder.
- b) What is the father’s genotype? Explain your reasoning.
Genotype is XD Y
Reason: since the father has no duchenne alleles which are denoted by d.
- c)What is the likelihood of the male foetus having DMD? Use a punnet square to explain your answer.
|
XD |
Xd |
|
|
Xd |
X DXd |
Xd Xd |
|
Y |
XD Y |
Xd Y |
The likelihood of male foetus having DMD is 1:4
Proteins are digested by pepsin at a neutral pH in the stomach. Further protein digestion is achieved by pancreatic peptidase in the duodenum and completed at the microvilli by brush border enzymes to liberate bile salts for absorption. Digestion in the small intestine requires a pH that is alkaline. Intestinal pH is adjusted by secretion of bicarbonate produced by the liver and insulin produced by the pancreas. Pancreatic enzymes show specificity for their substrates. Pancreatic amylase digests carbohydrates to Disaccharides and disaccharides. Brush border enzymes complete carbohydrate digestion to Monosaccharide’s for absorption. Pancreatic lipase, together with bile salts acting as an emulsifying agent, digests fats to monoglycerides and free fatty acids. Monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into the intestinal capillaries. Monoglycerides and free fatty acids are absorbed into the Lymphatic vessels.
Describe the changes in volume and pressure inside the chest cavity during a normal exhalation. Explain why these changes are occurring, and the effect upon airflow. (2 marks)
Exhalation increases internal volume of the lungs thus decreasing the volume in thoracic cavity. This is because decreased volume in thoracic cavity increases pressure that pushes lungs back to their normal shape hence allowing lungs to expel air during exhalation
|
Question |
Answer |
|
Contraction of which muscle/s produces the movement labelled 1? |
Diaphragm muscles |
|
Contraction of which muscle/s produces movement labelled 2 |
Thoracic cavity |
|
At label “3”, is pressure outside greater than or less than pressure in the lungs |
The pressure is lower |
|
Is the pressure in the space labelled “4”, higher or lower compared to atmospheric pressure |
The pressure is lower |
|
At label “8”, is pressure outside greater than or Less than pressure inside the lungs |
The pressure is greater |
|
Name any ONE muscle that contracts to cause the extra movement required when you need to expire forcefully |
External intercostals muscles |
Regarding ventilation, which process is active – inhalation or exhalation? Explain your answer. (1 mark)
Inspiration is the most active process regarding ventilation. It involves contraction of the diaphragm where thoracic cavity increases in volume hence decreasing the intra-alveolar pressure such that air flows into the lungs
- Infectious agent: Salmonella typhi
Reservoir: contaminated food icy-slushie
Mode of transmission: contaminate food
Portal entry: mouth
Susceptible host: young child; immature immune system
|
Location |
Type of epithelium |
Relate structure to function |
|
Bladder |
Transitional epithelium |
Permits repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling. This allows the bladder to cope with large changes in volume (ie stretch as it fills with urine, and recoil upon micturition |
|
Alveoli |
Squamous epithelium |
Facilitates transfer of gases between the alveolar air as well as the blood. They also allow passage of materials via filtration plus simple diffusion in sites where protection is not necessary |
|
Trachea |
Presudostratified squamous epithelium |
Their mucous secretion and cilia aids in collection of foreign material so than they can be coughed or sneezed out |
|
Jejunum |
Simple Columnar epithelium |
Lines organs of the digestive tract such as the small intestine , stomach and the large intestine |
During resting membrane potential the inside of the cell is 70 mV more negative than the outside of the cell. When a stimulus is applied, the membrane potential must reach peak action potential in order for an Action Potential to be fired. At the start of an Action Potential, Na+ channels open and Na+ ion enter the cell. This phase is called depolarization. Which number indicates the point where a stimulus is applied 8? The action potential is the period of time in which the nerve membrane can start another action potential only if a much greater stimulus than usual is applied.
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