Advantages of Blockchain in Healthcare
a.
Voting Authority: p =59, q=97 and g = 5724
Seven Voters: r1=90, r2=91, r3=92, r4=93, r5=95, r6= 95 and r7 = 96
VA calculations:
n = p*q = 59*97= 5723
g = 5724
Public key sent to sender= (n, g) = (35, 164)
λ = lcm (p-1, q-1) = lcm(58, 96) = 2784
gλ mod n2 = 57242784 mod 57232 = 15932833
k = L(15932833) = (15932833 – 1)/5723 = 2784
µ = k-1 mod n = 2784-1 mod 5723 = 4763
Private key= (2784, 4723)
Voting Calculations for each voter:
Voter Yes/No Voter Message Voter Private Number Encrypted Vote
r1 Yes 00100 = 8 90 5773128
r2 Yes 00100 = 8 91 16216088
r3 No 00001 = 1 92 21511470
r4 No 00001 = 1 93 4594963
r5 Yes 00100 = 8 94 10459776
r6 No 00001 = 1 95 21358322
r7 Yes 00100 = 8 96 13823081
Voter r1
c = gm rn mod n2
= 57248 905723 mod 57232 = 5773128
Voter r2
c = gm rn mod n2
= 57248 915723 mod 57232 = 16216088
Voter r3
c = gm rn mod n2
= 57241 925723 mod 57232 = 21511470
Voter r4
c = gm rn mod n2
= 57241 935723 mod 57232 = 4594963
Voter r5
c = gm rn mod n2
= 57248 945723 mod 57232 = 10459776
Voter r6
c = gm rn mod n2
= 57241 955723 mod 57232 = 21358322
Voter r7
c = gm rn mod n2
= 57248 965723 mod 57232 = 13823081
VS exploits Paillier’s Additively homomorphic property, and multiplies all the cipher-texts to tally the votes:
Encrypted Votes: {5773128, 16216088, 21511470, 4594963, 10459776, 21358322, 13823081}
Using the Paillier property:
= 5773128* 16216088* 21511470* 4594963* 10459776* 21358322* 13823081 mod 57232
= 2013259
VA gets the message of collected votes as C= {2013259}
Decryption of Votes:
m = L(Cλ mod n2) µ mod n
= L(20132592784 mod 57232) 4763 mod 5723
= L(852728) 4763 mod 5723
= ((852728-1)/5723) 4763 mod 5723
= 149 * 4763 mod 5723
= 35
= 100011
100 = 4 votes in Yes
011 = 3 votes in No
Total Votes= 7 and verified.
b.
Alice selections:
p = 6451
g = 4599
x = 193
y = gx (mod p) = 4599193 mod 6451 = 1327
public key to both the stores: {6451, 4599, 1327}
Random number at store1 r1:155
Cstore1 = m yr1 mod p = 20 * 1327155 mod 6451 = 5290
Random number at store1 r1:156
Cstore2 = m yr2 mod p = 25 * 1327156 mod 6451 = 4653
Message sent to Server from Stores {5290, 50} and {4653, 35}
Server Computes:
C3,C4 = ((5290*4653) mod 6451), ((50*35) mod 6451))
= (3805, 1750)
Alice Decrypts:
= (1750 mod 6451)/(3805)193 mod 6451
Drug Supply Chain: The Ripe Opportunity
= 1750 * 3805-193 mod 6451
= 1750 (total earnings calculated)
- Using RSA
p = 10009
q = 9739
N = p * q = 97477651
r = (p-1) * (q-1) = 97457904
K = 1754242273 (1 mod r candidate)
Factors of K = 7*250606039
Hence, e = 7
d = 250606039
Both e and d are prime
In order to encode the message Bob has to encrypt the message (m=456789) as:
Cipher = (m)e mod N= (456789)7 mod 97477651 = 32153469 For Alice in order to decrypt the cipher message and ensure message is from Bob
m = (Cipher)d mod N = (32153469) 250606039 mod 97477651 = 456789
- ELGamal Encryption
Chosen
p = 8081, g= 2849, x = 59
h = gx mod p
the Public key of Bob is and sent to Alice:
p=8081, g=2849, h=1804
Alice now chooses a random key r: 1832
m =3456
Alice encrypts using Bob key:
(c?1??, c?2??) = (g?r?? mod p, (h?r??m) mod p) = (28491832 mod 8081, (284959 mod 8081)) =
(174, 3706) encrypted message
To decrypt the message:
s=c?1??x mod p = 17459mod 8081 = 2185
m=c?2?? . s? p−2?? mod p = 3706 * 21858079 mod 8081 = 3456 (decrypted message)
- Since the signature can be forged the data sent to receiver is public key, sign.out and test.txt (as used in openssl in lecture notes). When we forged the signature scheme the receiver doesn’t know if the content is coming from the original sender, as forged signature means sender can forge the content sent along with the message being communicated.
- Using raw RSA operations (Mdmod n or Me mod n) then it is quite unsafe to use the same key for the purpose of signing and decryption, as an attacker could trick the private key holder to sign a message M which would generate the Md that is actually an encryption message of M = Pe hence allowing the attacker to easily recover the plaintext from the original message using ((Pe)d=P). In case padding mode is used then it is safe to use RSA as the encryption payload do not look like a signature payload.
Blockchain is technology that is rapidly revolutionizing the industry, from cryptocurrency to medicines, food and beverages etc. with industries from suppliers to financial services all looking to capitalize the digital technology. From the technology point of view the blockchain is a software which record and log transactions as a digital ledger system and finally grouping them in chronological order called as “Blocks”.
With a pretty simple proof of evidence, it’s advantage that is being associated with blockchain what makes it an attractive proposition for any industry. The entire database is distributed across the entire network hence no centralized entry or node is present in the network, which makes impossible for hackers to target any particular node. The entire system is completely transparent with all the users being made aware of all the transactions and their respective changes made to the public blockchains. Once the data is written on the blockchain it is there forever and change is practically impossible as the change in one entry means changing the whole chain making brute force attack completely useless in this case.
Blockchain is the major concept underlying any cryptocurrency like Bitcoin, Ethereum, Ella, Ripple etc. With the advancement in technology and knowhow in blockchain there are also threats like ransomware attacks and demanding the payment in cryptocurrency, these attacks have been done on the medical records and hospitals hence most of the fraternity of the medicine have heard about blockchain and cryptocurrency.
Authenticity Issues
Despite having the negative mindset of the people and investors around the world for cryptocurrency and blockchain, the potential of the cryptocurrency is huge. With the application in the healthcare sector being incredibly high it is highly recommended to be used in the healthcare sector by many experts of blockchain and cryptocurrencies. With the healthcare starting to adopt the blockchain with the tangible benefits around it making it best suitable for the required purpose. With expert such as Merck associate director for applied technology, Nishan Kulatilaka said that the healthcare could become the second largest sector in the world to adopt the blockchain after the financial services.
For patient and different public health care systems, blockchain could act as the natural facilitator for the electronic records of health provider, this means any patient can visit any part of the globe connected to the blockchain, entire record would be available with different health organization without the issue of security and damage to the data.
With number of possibilities being considered in the healthcare industry, but one of the facet of all the pharma landscape is currently ripe for the moment, the Drug Supply Chain. The Issue of counterfeit medicines have become increasing a major issue both in the terms of economic losses and increase in risk related to human life that comes along with taking these counterfeit drugs which might not have the medicine or compound as mentioned on the label. Though with the current system in place tracking in the entire counterfeit drugs is quite difficult, the stats speak for themselves as the sale of fake drugs is $75 Billion in the years 2010 and that is increase of over 90% in the previous years. In Asia, Africa and other developing American countries (south America), the counterfeit drugs account for at least 10-30% of the total medicine that are on sale. Around the globe the governments are trying their best to tighten the supply chain integrity in order to slow down the flow of fake medicine in healthcare sector.
Just like pharma companies’ distributers around the globe are considering various options to improve the overall supply chain’s security and traceability of products. With the advancement in medicine sector the drug distribution chain has grown immensely in both scope and complexity, but lags in the sector of using the digital technologies and management systems that are necessary in managing the system and securing it alongside.
Multi-Signal Anomaly Detection through Machine Learning
As such, there are in-built vulnerabilities in the drug supply chain at the many points where drugs transfer ownership on their way to patients, and pharma manufacturers and other stakeholders have little visibility to track the authenticity of products. Blockchain could provide significant benefits here, with barcode-tagged drugs scanned and entered into secure digital blocks whenever they change hands. This ongoing real-time record could be viewed anytime by authorised parties and even patients as well.
The blockchain works as follows in the medicine:
- Each and every medicine is marked with ID tag that is unambiguous, this allows the ownership transfer from virtual and physical upstream suppliers to downstream suppliers/customers. This ID hash is being produced and the information is stored on the respective blockchain.
- The wholesaler would identify the origin of the drug/product using the ID and information from the blockchain, the information of successful transaction from manufacturer to wholesaler is added to the blockchain.
- The pharmacist verifies the original origin of the product and transaction with the wholesaler is added to the blockchain.
- Then finally the customer repeats the process of verifying the product origin along with the previous transactions to verify the entire system being secure and drug being original. The transaction with the pharmacist is added to blockchain.
This will help in handling the two major issues associated with the drug traceability which was somewhat impossible before the Blockchain, first being allowing manufacturers to track their products at every supply chain point, making an impossible to counterfeit records network thus no counterfeit medicine can be added to the products. Second, it allows all the stakeholders majorly labs to identify the problems associated with the drugs at what particular location.
There is the flaw in this way of mutual authentication protocol, here an imposter like “Trudy” can initiate a communication with Bob by saying that “I’m alice”, with a random R value being chosen. The Bob will now send the response as E(R, KAB). The Trudy now do not know of KAB but can communicate with Bob again with new connection as R+1 as R is known to Trudy so next calculation R+1 can be done and again impersonate as Alice. Now, Bob will send E(R+1, KAB) to Bob, hence it is done and mutual authentication has been accepted by Bob and Trudy can now behave as Alice as Bob has no idea of Trudy real identity. The Trudy can now use the same authentication to do replay attacks.
- Since R is sent in plaintext format anyone can retract the Key (K) using the R XOR (r XOR K), hence it is not secure
- Since we are encrypting the R using the K, K is only known to Alice and Bob hence this method is secure.
- Byte sequences in network traffic or known malicious intrusion strings
- DNS of the traffic
- Protocol used for traffic
- Port used for traffic
- Protocol based flags used for traffic
The use of multiple signals or statistics is ideal in the case where type of anomaly is unknown to the system, hence we make a system that can learn from previous statistics and combine them to find out anomaly. This done using the Machine Learning Algorithms.
- The only issue with using multiple statistics to develop a machine learning IDS system is that of false positive, any previously unknown legitimate activity may be marked as malicious by the system leading to false positives.
- The System Administrator cannot give the Alice the previous password as the password are stored as hash or md5 hence it is impossible to reverse the hash functions, so System Administrator resets the password and provides the Alice with new one. As the password is known to the system administrator, the Alice should change it immediately to secure the password as it should not be known to other people.
- The System administrator can know that if Alice has kept the previous password by looking at the hash of the previous and current kept password, if they are same it is known that Alice has kept the same password but it is secure despite the hash known to the administrator. (Assuming the SA has the access to the system databases for password hash lookup).
The Java code written for the calculation is given below:
import java.io.File;
import java.io.FileNotFoundException;
import java.util.Scanner;
public class JavaApplication1 {
/**
* @param args the command line arguments
* @throws java.io.FileNotFoundException
*/
public static void main(String[] args) throws FileNotFoundException {
double d = 0.0;
String text = “”;
String line=””;
String app = “”;
Scanner input = new Scanner(new File(“stego_ecg.txt”));
while(input.hasNextLine()) {
line = input.nextLine();
System.out.println(line);
d = Double.parseDouble(line);
app = Long.toBinaryString(Double.doubleToLongBits(d));
System.out.println(“LSB: “+app.substring(app.length()-1));
text += app.substring(app.length() – 1);
}
input.close();
System.out.println(“String Formed: “+text);
}
}
The output:
The String thus converted gives the plaintext as: security in computingÿ2
References
Alam, K., Alam, K., Faruq, O., & Morimoto, Y. (2016). A comparison between RSA and ElGamal based untraceable blind signature schemes. 2016 International Conference On Networking Systems And Security (Nsyss). doi: 10.1109/nsyss.2016.7400705
Azaria, A., Ekblaw, A., Vieira, T., & Lippman, A. (2016). MedRec: Using Blockchain for Medical Data Access and Permission Management. 2016 2Nd International Conference On Open And Big Data (OBD). doi: 10.1109/obd.2016.11
Boruah, D., & Saikia, M. (2014). Implementation of ElGamal Elliptic Curve Cryptography over prime field using C. International Conference On Information Communication And Embedded Systems (ICICES2014). doi: 10.1109/icices.2014.7033751
Ekblaw, A., & Azaria, A. (2018). MedRec: Medical Data Management on the Blockchain. Retrieved from https://viral.media.mit.edu/pub/medrec
Iswari, N. (2016). Key generation algorithm design combination of RSA and ElGamal algorithm. 2016 8Th International Conference On Information Technology And Electrical Engineering (ICITEE). doi: 10.1109/iciteed.2016.7863255
Mettler, M. (2016). Blockchain technology in healthcare: The revolution starts here. 2016 IEEE 18Th International Conference On E-Health Networking, Applications And Services (Healthcom). doi: 10.1109/healthcom.2016.7749510
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