Plant physiology and CO2 effects
Carbon dioxide is essential for plant and human life. The waste gas is a product of fossil fuel combustion, and it is seen as a man-made waste. There is a steady rise in the atmospheric CO2 levels. Any changes in the atmospheric composition impact tree physiology. A rise in the atmospheric CO2 boosts the rate of photosynthesis and enhance the plant productivity. Over the years, numerous experiments have confirmed on how CO2 stimulates leaf-level photosynthesis (Talhelm et al. 2014, p.2493). There have been debates on if Carbon dioxide should be seen as the primary pollutant. After all, it supports plant and human life and is essential for photosynthesis. The continued pollution due to Carbon dioxide emissions and the impact on global warming question the notion if CO2 should not be seen as a pollutant. The link of Carbon dioxide emissions to global warming and the adverse health impact s certainly place CO2 in the category of an air pollutant.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless and neutral gas. It is emitted chiefly because of human activities and can add pollutants to outdoor as well as indoor spaces (Yalçin, Balta & Özmen 2018, p. 1390). Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approach towards the regulation of CO2 to control climate change initiated a battle between the agency and states and environmental advocates. EPA circulated a memo that the agency does not carry the power to regulate carbon dioxide under the Clean Air Act (CAA). It was projected that carbon dioxide does not fall under the category of pollutant definition of CAA (Nicholle 2004, p.1996).
Under the CAA for any pollutant to become a criteria pollutant, it must be an “air pollutant.” In order to prove that CO2 is a pollutant, the EPA Administrator must prove that the pollutant adds to the air pollution and can adversely impact public health directly (Nicholle 2004, p.1999). It is suggested that as carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, it adds to the global warming but does not cause harm directly. United States Code of Federal Regulations and US Clean Air Act assert that an air pollutant is any physical, biological, chemical radioactive matter that is released into the air and adds to air pollution that can imperil public health (Skeptical Science 2018). The definition is a broad one and can be fine-tuned.
Carbon Dioxide is the main factor in greenhouse gas composition and leads to the greenhouse phenomenon. It is mainly produced because of the fossil fuel burning such as coal, natural gas and petroleum. The future CO2 emissions must return to the emission standard of 2000 by 2025 (Jung-Hsiang Lai et al. 2018, p.346). In order to do so, the governments in different countries must make drastic reduction policies for CO2 emissions. The U.S. has the maximum annual CO2 emission per capita. Although SO2 and NO2 are seen as conventional local pollutants, CO2 emissions related to global environmental problems are not seen as air pollutants (Fujii, H & Managi 2016, p. 2803).
Classification of CO2 as an air pollutant
The courts should review the language and purpose of carbon dioxide interpretation under the CAA as they are the suitable forum for this type of interpretation (Nicholle 2004, p.2031). EPA carries the authority to control greenhouse gases emissions. Based on the Supreme Court 2009 ruling and primary scientific reports, EPA issued a notice stating that greenhouse gases in the air can risk public health and welfare (Skeptical Science 2018). Thus, the CO2 a greenhouse gas fits the definition of “air pollutants” stated by the US Clean Air Act.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration suggests maximum exposure restrictions of 5, 000 ppm for an 8-hr workday (Satish et al. 2012, p.1671). The US Environmental Protection Agency limits the threshold for CO2 concentration at 1000 ppm or 1800 mg/m3 (Yalçin, Balta & Özmen 2018, p. 1391). The highest CO concentrations indoors are during the early hours of weekdays. The increased Carbon uptake in the past few decades has slowed the buildup of carbon dioxide in the in the atmosphere. The terrestrial biosphere has worked as a sink for the CO2 emissions, but there is uncertainty about this in the future. The uncertainty develops as it is unsure as to how the anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and other trace gases will impact the C cycling (Talhelm et al. 2014, p.2492). The exchanges between the environmental and biological factors control the CO2 accumulations.
The increasing CO2 emissions a not only raise the air pollution but also lead to global warming. Human activities are indeed aggregating the amount of atmospheric CO2 and thus increasing the greenhouse effect. Climate scientists warn against the changes in the electromagnetic spectrum and the energy imbalance caused due to global warming (Skeptical Science 2018). It is seen as the cause of significant concern as the presence of CO2 both outdoors and indoors can lead to adverse impacts, especially if the concertation falls beyond the permissible levels.The “mortality displacement” is an air pollution episode that could advance deaths among the frail group (de Leon et al. 2017, p. 220). Identifying mortality displacement and the loss of life expectancy is essential. However, the mortality displacement can differ with countries and populations because of the variations in population, health care, and other characteristics as well as variations regarding daily exposures to CO2 and NO2 as asserted by de Leon et al. (2017, p. 348). Thus, it is essential to monitor the quality of indoor as well as outdoor spaces and asses the percentage of CO2.
CO2 emissions regulation
In the urban and developed regions and countries, people tend to spend the majority of their time indoors. The elderly, children and the sick are left even more vulnerable to indoor air quality (Semple et al. 2012, p. 212). As humans create and breathe our carbon dioxide (CO2), CO2 concentrations are higher in indoor areas when compared to outdoors. The difference in CO2 concentration between the indoors and outdoors increases as the ventilation rate decrease. (Satish et al. 2012, p.1671). Indoor space characteristics such as ventilation, allergies, job stress, and the presence of chemical-emitting materials impact the indoor environment as stated by Allen et al. (2016, p. 805).
Typically, the CO2 concentrations in the outdoor are about 380 ppm. In the urban areas, the CO2 concentrations can be as high as500 ppm. (Satish et al. 2012, p.1671). Thermal discomfort and bad indoor air quality can lead to uneasiness and lower performance. This is not good for people levity or working within homes or public workspaces. It is essential to have optimum air temperature and quality to help ensure healthy living and working conditions (Yalçin, Balta & Özmen 2018, p. 1391). WHO guidelines for air quality should be applied to indoor environments. The guidelines advocate the particulate concentrations to be kept below 25 lg/m3 (Semple et al. 2012, p. 213). The impact of indoor air quality on cardiovascular and respiratory health has garnered interest in the recent studies. Cardiovascular events, cough, and asthma have been linked to poor indoor air quality (Semple et al. 2012, p. 212). Monitoring the quality of indoor spaces and the air is essential.
There are different reasons behind the increased CO2 concentrations, and it is chiefly because of human activities. The urban air pollutants include a mix of ultrafine particles, black carbon, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide as well as carbon dioxide plus other volatile organic compounds. The pollutants are associated with motor vehicle emissions and local sources of combustion. The vehicle-related pollutant peak in concentrations during the daytime (Hu et al. 2012, p. 311).The practices of building construction changed during the seventies because of the rising cost of energy. The buildings and indoor spaces were now made energy efficient and airtight, thus decreasing air flow rates in homes and offices (Allen et al. 2016, p.805). Thus, the typical air exchange rates have dropped significantly over the years. The ventilation requirements have been lower to keep pace with the energy-conservation measures. Smoking activity is a significant cause for concerns for indoor air quality. The indoor air pollutants of a home with a resident smoker are much higher than those homes that use coal, wood or gas (Semple et al. 2012, p. 220).
Impact of CO2 on indoor and outdoor air quality
When one takes the example of China, the leading producer of CO2 emissions, different aspects are seen behind the rise in emissions. China’s energy consumption shows an increase in natural gas supplies for domestic unconventional gas development. SNG industry and technology increased over the years and at the same time, has given rise to a mix of concerns related to air pollution in China. China’s coal-based SNG strategy gets rids of sulphur emissions, but the SNG cycle discharges higher CO2 than the use of coal. With SNG, one sees a 60% higher CO2 emission (Qin et al. 2017, p. 4887). Thus, China’s SNG growth has not been beneficial for the local air quality. The country faces the challenge of severe air pollution, and countrywide concerns exist about the CO2 emissions because of the development of SNG production (Qin et al. 2017, p. 4891). 53% of the total CO2 emissions in China were contributed by electricity generation, and it was responsible for premature deaths due to regional air pollution. China pledged to bring down its CO2 emissions by shifting over to non-fossil sources for20% of its energy requirements by 2030 (Yang et al. 2018, p. 64002). The Chinese government is already focusing on renewable energy sources like solar and wind energy. China’s solar PV development has seen dramatic growth in China, and the target has been set for 110 GW from the current 50 GW. It expects to expand its solar power generation capacity to 400 GW in 2030 as asserted by Yang et al. (2018, p. 64002).
The World Health Organization estimates that about two million people die each year due to the Exposure to indoor air pollutants (Semple et al. 2012, p. 213). The primary sources of indoor pollutants and particulates are burning of fuel such as coal and wood for cooking. The combustion of tobacco, vacuuming and incense burning also add to the indoor pollutants. Solid or biomass fuel is still used for cooking in a significant percentage of homes. Pollutants and gas emissions are known to cause severe damage to cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and thus raise the risk of premature mortality. Emission forecasting can be useful in establishing the relationship between economic activities and emissions and design appropriate environmental policies to reduce air pollutant emissions efficiently (Fujii, H & Managi 2016, p. 2802). As asserted by Satish et al. (2012, p.1671), higher levels of CO2 indoors point to poor air quality which can cause a headache, irritation and can lead to increased absenteeism and lower performance.
Human activities and CO2 production
CO2 carries health effects on humans only if the concentrations are much higher than the typical indoor settings. For example, CO2 concentrations higher than 20,000 ppm can cause deepened breathing while 40,000 ppm CO2 concentrations increase respiration, and if the concentrations increase more than 100,000 ppm, the individual can feel tremors and experience visual disturbances and may lose consciousness. 250,000 ppm concentration of CO2 can even cause death (Satish et al. 2012, p.1671). Numerous studies have connected immediacy to trafficked roadways with increased adverse health effects (Hu et al. 2012, p. 311).
Scientific literature review on how the indoor air affects health reflects negative health consequences from the poor quality of indoor air. Children’s health impacts include asthma, learning disabilities, weaker immune systems, autism and cancer (Pickett, and Bell 2010, p. 4503). As infants and children spend the majority of their time indoors, they are likely to get more exposure to those indoor air pollutants. Their body systems are still under development, and those air pollutants can enter their respiratory system right from an early age. A recent finding on improvements in air quality also points out to the lower inflammation, blood coagulation and oxidative stress on the body. Air pollution regulations can improve the quality of air and increase life expectancy (Zhang et al. 2013, p. 44). However aggressive interventions are necessary to bring down the current air pollution levels megacities and metropolitan areas and improve public health.
The policymakers have worked over the approaches to lower CO2 emissions since the 1990s, and several NGOs have been involved in the process. However, it is doubtful as to how successful the NGOs have been in their efforts to control CO2 emissions (Grant and Vasi 2017, p. 95). United States and other countries realize the need for a new approach to reduce carbon releases to address climate change. Different policies are already experimenting with mitigating CO2 emissions and set renewable portfolio standards to curb carbon emissions. The third climate evaluation report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) places excellent stress on climate warming and why the countries must take on the responsibility of addressing climate warming by developing low-carbon economies (He et al. 2017, p. 2). EPA’s Clean Power Plan puts forth numerous approaches to lower CO2 emissions and meet the rate-based goals. However, it does not clarify how those goals can be interpreted into mass-based goals (Grant and Vasi 2017, p. 98). It is essential to building environmental accountability with recoupling of policies with practices.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) reports that air pollution effects differ with different substances and air pollutants (Fujii, H & Managi 2016, p. 2811). Each country should create policies based on the study of its economic expansion and air pollution emissions by industries as well as industrial characteristics. The levels of indoor pollution are often not regulated. Some foundations of indoor air pollutants include cleaning solvents, allergens, smoking, paint, carpets, and biomass and even the fuels used for cooking. More compact and sealed buildings with lower ventilation increase the risk of higher pollutants and increased respiratory symptoms, especially for the younger children. Volatile organic compounds in carpets, paints, and cleaning products within the house can act as respiratory toxins, sensory irritants and carcinogens (Pickett, and Bell 2010, p. 4503).
Data on the ranges of pollutant levels reflects CO2, VOCs, and PM0.5 levels that exceed health-based guidelines (Pickett, and Bell 2010, p. 4516). Thus, the residential air pollution should be seen as a significant health risk for infants. It is essential to measure the indoor air quality in homes with families and children and take the right steps in controlling the sources of the pollutants. U.S. Green Building Council pomotes sustainable “green” building to lower the environmental footprint and improve occupant health. The guidelines focus on improving energy efficiency, ventilation, and filtration, controlling indoor pollutants and make use of low-emitting materials for the building. (Allen et al. 2016, p. 806). Green buildings are linked to improved productivity in home and offices. It is interesting to note that those guidelines did not cover CO2 emissions when working on the energy efficiency of the green building (Allen et al. 2016, p. 806).
China ranks highest in carbon emissions across the world and has already entered the new phase of economic development that supports reducing carbon emissions along with conserving energy. China’s total natural gas consumption has risen considerably over the past couple of years. However, the growth rate fails to keep pace with the faster-growing demand of energies. Looking at the growing concerns about the rising levels of air pollution, it is evident that the Chinese government aims to focus on creating cleaner energy. China’s climate change mitigation strategies to control air pollution means implementing stringent pollution-control policies. It is essential to address pollution challenges due to CO2 emissions before 2030. The electricity generation from renewable sources can promote electrification in the transportation, commercial and residential and sectors and control to CO2 emissions (Yang et al. 2018, p. 64002).
China’s Energy Prospects estimates that the energy uprising will slow the economic growth and decrease the demand for energy. The carbon emissions will be the highest in 2025 as the entire energy demand will touch about 4 and 5 billion tons of coal in 2020 and 2030, respectively (He et al. 2017, p. 2). The emphasis of China’s energy reorganizations is to improve the country’s energy efficiency. The country is building a structural system that encourages energy conservation and lowers emission. However, China still faces challenges regards to finance and taxation, fiscal and taxation systems and such imperfections. The role of the structural path needs to be more robust than that of the efficiency path (He et al. 2017, p. 16). Local government investment can help magnify the carbon emissions decline effects and help generate a useful carbon inhibition effect. However, the industrial structure, policy directions, and historical carbon emissions too have a role to play. Thus, sometimes it is difficult to rely just on the local government investment to inhibit carbon emissions.
Looking at China, it is apparent theta in order to improve the worsening CO2 emissions; it is essential to develop policies which can improve the energy structure, readjust the industrial structure and clean CO2 directly by changing the damaging CO2 into advantageous CO2 (Jung-Hsiang Lai et al. 2018, p.346). It is getting more difficult to select and install air pollution control equipment because of the growing population and rapid industrialization. The public health and welfare are protected under stricter air emission regulations and environmental laws and regulations (Bandyopadhyay 2012, p. 238). It is essential to note here that while some plants release more CO2 than others, the livelihoods of the local citizens rely on these plants and industries. It is a grim scenario as the workers keep getting exposed to the factories’ pollution (Grant and Vasi 2017, p. 95).
Past studies reflect that indirect climate policies fail to meet their objectives. Both outside and inside efforts like protests, lawsuits, and petition, as well as sharing of technical knowledge and information, can help achieve the environmental goals (Grant and Vasi 2017, p. 112). These strategies are much needed in regions where the fossil fuel industry is still active and strong. Excessive exposure to indoor air pollutants is linked to chronic health conditions such as respiratory illnesses and asthma (Semple et al. 2012, p. 213).
As stated by Fujii, H & Managi (2016, p. 2803), the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis shows a close link between the gross domestic product and environmental emissions. EKC can be understood by technology level, economic scale and the industrial composition within a country. The association between economic expansion and air pollutant discharges depends on the variances in industry and air pollutants kinds. When EKC was tested for various industrial sectors, the relationship differed by air pollutants and industries. Thus, the study points out that it is essential to focus on industrial characteristics for air pollutant reduction and make use of EKC.
Just measuring room temperature is not adequate as it is equally essential to measure the indoor air quality. Bad air quality can lead to more energy expenses. Those problems get even more severe in public places and commercial areas (Yalçin, Balta & Özmen 2018, p. 1390). Validated models based on real measurements with instrumentation can help predict CO2 levels close to the real measurements and thus improve the indoor air quality (Yalçin, Balta & Özmen 2018, p. 1400). As stated by Bandyopadhyay (2012, p. 239), certain factors should be kept in mind when choosing a particular air pollution control device in general. These factors include the environmental, engineering, and economic aspects. Environmental factors include the location and space for the equipment, the availability of utilities, permissible emission limits and aesthetic considerations. Engineering aspects consider the characteristics of the pollutant gas stream and design and performance characteristics of the device. The economic factors need to focus on cost, expected life and the operating costs of the air pollution control device. Specifications and process and economic fundamentals need to be reviewed carefully as asserted by Bandyopadhyay (2012, p. 239).
Green buildings and environments show significant improvement in cognitive function in their office workers. Exposure to CO2 has been linked to lower cognitive scores. An increased exchange and flow of outdoor air lower the exposures to CO2 (Allen et al. 2016, p. 812). Thus, it is essential to implement green building designs that optimize employee productivity. Mobile instrumented platforms are being used to capture the pollutant concentrations and gradients when the vehicle runs on fixed routes. Those pollutant concentrations when compared to adjacent residential areas with minor traffic, there were still elevated pollutant concentrations seen in the residential areas. Those higher pollutant concentrations are attributed to the high emission vehicles and secondary aerosol formation. The results are an important implication for the human contact to air pollutants for the residents living close to the heavy vehicular traffic areas (Hu et al. 2012, p. 318).
Specific policies that tackle with the carbon dioxide pollution of power plants can improve the efficiency with renewable portfolio standards and leading energy efficiency agendas to encourage a cost-effective use of fossil fossils (Grant and Vasi 2017, p. 112). The civil society can play an essential role in environmental accountability and taking environmental responsibility. The environmental performance can be mobilized by a motivated local citizenry (Grant and Vasi 2017, p. 112). CO2 absorption is seen as a criterion for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Adequately designed control devices can help control particulate-laden-gaseous pollution (Bandyopadhyay 2012, p. 282).
Indoor Environmental Quality can be improved with new technologies and energy consumption monitoring (Salamone et al. 2017, p. 352). Certain devices using cheaper sensors are already available on the market who can help monitor the energy consumption. Specific technical solutions focus on optimizing building strategies to create zero energy buildings or ZEB. The objective is to lower energy consumptions for both cooling and heating. One finds terms like green roofs, cool roofs, dynamic windows to create sustainable solutions to achieve ZEB objectives (Salamone et al. 2017, p. 352). A study on different monitoring devices in different application scenarios and how they measure the air temperature, humidity with the help of software and hardware reflects that many useful settings can be identified to demonstrate the efficiency of monitoring devices. The use of new pervasive technologies along with the DIY approach can be associated with improved customization and adaptation options (Salamone et al. 2017, p. 359). Involving the customers and motivating them to participate actively through a system based on a DIY approach can certainly help improve the quality of the building as well as the quality of life of the occupants.
Conclusion
The above discussion concludes that CO2 is indeed an air pollutant. Human activities are to be blamed for the increased emissions. CO2 emission not only adds to the global warming but also lower the quality of indoor spaces and air. The developed and industrialized countries should lead by examples and set stringent policies to control CO2 emissions. Efforts by China and other countries show that the past efforts and policies have not been useful to lower the CO2 emissions. The increased pollutants are making global warming worse and warming the planet. Human activities like fossil fuel burning, smoking, transportation adds to both outdoor and indoor air pollutants with the rise in CO2 emissions. There is sufficient evidence how poor quality of air in the outdoors as well as indoors lead to adverse health consequences. The elderly and the younger children are the most vulnerable. The government policies on energy, the practices of building construction and making cleaner energy need to be revised and made stringent. Just government efforts and investments are not going to be enough. The citizens need to participate actively and remain involved in every step. Every country needs to fine-tune its policies and strategies and makes every citizen accountable for carbon dioxide emissions. The Paris Agreement has already warned about taking strict measures to limit emissions of carbon dioxide on a global scale to combat global warming and curb climate change. The individuals, the governments and nations will have to join hands together to control carbon emissions and create and use cleaner energy forms.
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