Comparative Analysis Of Crime Trends In Congo Republic Of Congo, Democratic Republic Of Congo, Jamaica, And Trinidad And Tobago

GOVT2011 Criminal Justice Systems

Types of Crime

Crime is a social ill that arises from an unlawful act and made punishable under any state law or other authorities. It is a fact that the crime rate in the Jamaica, Congo, Trinidad and Tobago are increasing day by day. Each of these countries bears different criminal background (Moffett 2015). The crime rate of Congo has been increased from the year 1994 during Rwandan genocide. Congo has two parts: Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo (Wang et al. 2016).. It has been observed that the crimes takes place in these area are mostly based on economic gain. In Jamaica, there is an increment regarding the murder rate has reached in a higher peak and according to former Prime Minister Patterson, the murder proportion is become a challenge on nation wise. In the parts of Trinidad and Tobago, the murder is based on the gang war and drug trafficking. Sociologist Richard Quinney observed that crime can be proved as phenomenon for society (Wozniak 2015).

The Republic of Congo, is also known as Congo-Brazzaville” which is developing on their own aspects of the crime rates (Braga, Papachristos, and Hureau 2014). The crimes are mainly occurring due to economic lack of the people. However, there are several street crimes can be seen when foreigner visit the country. The criminals normally attack those foreigners depending on their dress, actions, behavior, and level of perceived vigilance. They mainly target the crowds where it will be easy to involve in the criminal activities (Henry 2015). In a study it was found that the Centreville is considered as a safest part from the criminal in Brazzaville whereas, Marché Total and Bacongo are considered as most high-crime rated area in the Congo.

Jamaica has also several crime factors where it can be define through many factors which are poverty, retribution, drugs, gangs, and politics. Here most of the crime rates can be seen in the gang activity. The most criminal activity is Jamaican-on-Jamaican violence, often involving organized criminal elements and gangs which affect the American visitors most. However police sometimes faces several obstacles to control the crime rates. The violence and murder rates are increases every year.

In the Trinidad and Tobago several violences has been found where serious offences are included like murder, wounding and shootings, rapes, incest and sexual offences, serious indecency, kidnapping, and robberies. There are other serious property crimes are also occur like burglaries, fraud, and larceny of motor vehicles, and larceny in dwelling houses. Therefore for the dealing with the property and violent crime the police and government ha took several initiatives to face the crime trends. However, it was found that the crime trends are increasing every day.

Basic Crime Rates

In this research the researcher has briefly describe the crime trend in the Republic and Democratic of Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.  

In the portion of Jamaica and Congo, the terrorist gang that killed the inhabitants and exports drugs creates the criminal atmosphere. Their action made the common people silent and the people even feared to go outside their room after the sunset. The crime rate has reached an optimum limit that becomes the main contradiction for the development of these countries. The main reasons behind these increasing rating are incompetent police authority and lack of sufficient judicial system (Tanner and Dupont 2015).

According to the survey, report of January 2017 the crime rate in Trinidad and Tobago has increased 6.1% than 2016 (Chadee et al. 2016). In the year 2017, the serious crime rating has become increased 21.3% in the area of Trinidad and Tobago. However, in Jamaica the murder rating is deteriorating unexpectedly. In 2010, the crime rate in Jamaica was 7.5% while in 2013 the rate was 5%. In Congo, the rate of homicide in the year 2010 was 14% (Nackoney et al. 2016) (Figure 1: Rape Percentage in Congo from 2010-16) (Gang wars and involvement of women in Trinidad & Tobago) (Involvement of the government in stopping crime in Trinidad & Tobago) (Drug trafficking in Jamaica).

The government of each countries are taking some initiatives regarding prohibiting the crime by adopting some effective measures. The Jamaican government has adopted a strict method with intent to abolish the crimes like human trafficking, rape, genocide, homicide and drug trafficking that become a custom in this area (Dallaire and Whitman 2015). The gang war in Jamaica is the central pivot of all these crimes. There is a positive approach to curb the gang war has been taken by the government of Jamaica. The police system has also been developed a lot and there are many changes observed as consequence.

In Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, the government has taken few steps but that proved non-effective as against the crime rate. The human rights authorities become inactive in the parts of Congo (Shelton 2015). The crime rates in Congo include abuses, brutal rape, genocide and arbitrary detention in increasing day by day due to this. In Congo, there is no freedom of press or personal privacy (Watt 2017). Non-governmental organization is not allowed there. Most of the parts of Congo are under the ruling of armed groups that include mercenaries (Cohen 2015). Even the police are involved with these heinous crimes. The police are alleged to extort the civilians, commit rape, kill common persons and the rate is on hike. The most serious impact is the government and political support behind these crimes.

Initiative by Government

In case of Trinidad and Tobago, the crime is a matter of controversy. The murder took place in the year 2008 had crossed 500. Most of the crimes are based on gang murder and the number had made a history. Port of Spain is the most rated crime area in Trinidad (Lim 2015). In some parts, drug war arose that resulted in a number of deaths. The government has improvised the condition of the police officers and the level of forensic evidence. CCTV cameras also imported from outside for the betterment of the evidentiary value in those parts. Consequently, there is a positive effect takes place. The kidnapping rate has been reduced dramatically and the extortion cases are also reported less than the year of 2005. However, the violence rate is still on rise in those areas and the government need to take care of that.

The Jamaican justice system is based on some independent actors who are imposed with some responsibilities regarding the civil as well as criminal operations (Jaffe 2013). They are in a post to maintain the law and order in those areas. According to the Jamaican Task Force Report 2007, the judicial system of Jamaica has levels like court, justice of peace, police and correctional home (Harriot and Jones 2016).

In this thesis, there is a thorough study on the crime rate, crime nature and government initiative regarding the African countries like Congo and the Caribbean islands like Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago. All survey reports and the nature of the crimes are being analyzed and research has been made for that purpose. The crime rate in those states is increasing due to laxity of tough judicial system. There are lots of dysfunction take place in the judicial system of these countries that resulted in mayhem in those areas.

Introduction:

In this thesis, an attempt has been made to carry out an extensive study on the nature of crime in the parts of Jamaica, Congo, and Trinidad and Tobago. An attempt regarding the impact of the crimes and the measures take place regarding the same by the government has been traced out. The crimes are serious in nature and become a global threat. In this review, some rules regarding different Acts has been discussed.

Nature of crime:

From the survey reports of each nation, it has been observed that crimes are basically formed in those places are based on group war. The crimes in those parts are organized in nature. Those criminals are assembled with a common intention to breach the peace and earn profit with some illegal motive (Walsh and Jorgensen 2017). Sociologist Diego Gambetta states that a group make with an intention to commit organized crime, are leading towards a terrorist group (Verweijen 2017.). In this process, the criminals or the terrorists are chalk out a plan to commit the crime in an organized way. It is very important to implement firm steps regarding the same by the Government; otherwise, there shall be a mishap took place in the area.

Literature Review

Policies of government:

The governments of each nation have taken some initiatives and enacted some rules with a view to curb these heinous crimes. A number of Acts have been drafted among whom Suppression of Criminal Organization & proceeds of Crime Act of Jamaica 2014, Ant-Gang Act 2011 for the country parts of Trinidad and Tobago, The Law Reform (Fraudulent Transaction) (spcl provision) Act are main (Bailey 2016). It is a fact that the provision regarding these Acts is limited within the geographical boundaries of each nation. In the countries like Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, all that are part of the Caribbean island, a complete Act are need to be implemented for these parts as the nature of the crimes are quite similar. With the increasing nature of the crimes in those parts, an attempt to curb the crime has been made by the united nation through convention in the year 2004. The main aim of that convention was to implement some regulation regarding the foreign relations and regarding the prohibition of organized crimes in those areas. An assessment regarding the effectiveness of those policies is taken into consideration. However, the application of these implementations is limited in nature (Brandt, Nolte and Agrawal 2016). United Nation has signifies the organizational criminals as a structured group that should be banned from the states of Congo, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago.

The crimes that are committed in those areas are terrorism, genocide, drug trafficking, corruption, kidnapping, brutal rape and extortion. A different pattern has been seen in crime report of each country (Baaz and Stern 2015). In the area of Congo, the crimes are occurred mainly for the economic gain. Racism is frequently seen in those areas. Crime against the Americas is become common now days. Even in the public places, crime has been happened. The crime rate in Congo has been at a hike during the Rwandan genocide (Brounéus 2014). As per the survey report of 2008, more than six million people were been killed. Human rights activities in these areas were very poor and the political support gave the criminals a scope to commit the crime (Fehl 2014). During the Rwandan attack, many civilians were killed. The human right activities were killed brutally in those times. In the year 2010, there was a history made where 240 people were raped by the rebellions that gives the country a rename like “rape capital” of the world. The United Nation has taken the responsibility to change the deadly environment of Congo. In the year 2012, the council for human rights has published a report on sexual violence and in that report; the whole allegation were went on Ugandan troops. In case of genocide, the Rwandan mercenaries were held liable. In the year 2012, the Human Rights Commissioner Navi Pillay stated that from the year 1998 to 2012, a little change had been take place. Her statement identifies the inability of the government as against the development of Congo (Beyrer 2014). Congo has two parts: Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo. In the Republic of Congo, hilarious criminal activities have been taken place in the rural areas than that of the urban areas. Criminal activities have been observed in the area like north and south kivu, Ituri, Tanganayika and kasai region. Rape is the most common thing in the parts of Cong and the offenders are not get punished, which make the country the most dangerous place for women. The United Nation has taken many steps to free the Congolese areas from the corruption and crime. In Democratic Republic of Congo, united nation has taken an important step that is known as MONUSCO (Tull 2016). They have fought against the Ugandan mercenaries and Congolese troops against their illegal and inhuman acts. They have taken many steps against rape. In the year 2000, the Security Council has made a commission in that place and made a report on this. Many officers were sent to these places with a view to inspect the matters and write down a report on the same. The United Nation convention had published a report in the year 2013 by implementing some regulation regarding organized crime. Measures have also been taken for the terrorism, corruption, public health and for the development of modern technology. The united nation has categorized the terrorist organizations as different groups like Transnational Organized Crime (TOC), Narco-trafficking group and so on (Otey 2015). According to the report of the United Nation, it has observed that there are a direct political support present behind the organized crimes in Congo and Jamaica. Many political leaders gain monetary profit from the crimes and many offenders scot-free after commission of crimes like murder and rape.

Steps of United Nation:

In the article “The Global Regime for Transnational Crime”, it was reported that in case of transnational organized crime, corrupted atmosphere is perfect essential. There is a direct acknowledgement of police and administration behind the terrorist of the areas like Congo and Jamaica. Even the efforts of the United Nation have also become inadequate in case of a positive step against those crimes. Many Acts were passed with an intention to fight against that non-stoppable social disease. There were many legislative steps taken for that issue such as UN convention against corruption, The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. In the areas of Trinidad and Tobago, the Public Procurement and Disposal of Public Property Bill was passed in the year 2014. In Corruption of Foreign Public Officials Act, it was previewed that the officials are punished with imprisonment for a term of ten years if they held liable for bribery. This Act has been adopted from USA where the alleged officials are punished for taking bribery at every level of the administration. The idea regarding the fraudulent mischief has been adopted from Britain too. In England, a legislative policy named Fraud Act 2006 was enacted to deal with the coercive activities of the public officials.

Crime pattern:

The anti-terrorism Act that had been enacted in the provinces like Congo and Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago is capable to deal with the criminal matters strictly (Brontinghom and Brontinghom 2013). The African provinces and Caribbean islands have adopted similar motive to deal with this problem and uprooted the problem from the society permanently. The Democratic Republic of Congo had very bad crime record. The people of these areas are being killed and the women were raped on daily basis. The offenders are not held liable for the heinous offences. In the areas of South Kivu, the soldiers killed a civilian unreasonably. In the area of Bumba, aggressive mob had burnt 32 polling booths. The situation goes to that height that the presidential candidate called Bemba had burnt a man alive and killed five police personnel. Many journalists were murdered in those areas and some of them are become non-traced. The supporter of the Movement for the Liberation of Congo had destroyed the churches, alleged with gang rape and murder and including molestation. The office of the human rights were also been looted by them. Another serious threats in those provinces are the wide spread of black magic that leads towards a serious infanticide. In the province of Zongo, a church father was allegedly throwing his child into the river for performing black magic. He was later arrested but did not prosecuted ever. The failure of governmental policies can be traced out from here. In the provinces of Trinidad and Tobago, the chart of crime is based on the gang murders and drug dealings. The drug peddlers in those areas are too much active and the crime rate regarding these all are increasing day by day. The situations of these provinces are deteriorating and there are an indirect support observed from the side of the administration. The Spanish colonials are the most wanted places in the Trinidad and Tobago. The government has also confessed the fact that there is a tremendous growth in the activities of the drug peddlers due to inactive participation of the police forces.

Government initiatives:

A significant development has been noticed in the policies of the governments of each country (Lewis-Fokum and Colvin 2017). The government of Jamaica has become stricter and the crime rate in the provinces of Jamaica has been reduced significantly. The rate of crime in the year of 2001 was much more than that of the rate in the year of 2010. According to the recent survey, the criminal activity of Jamaica has developed a lot and it is the police authority, who has taken a serious step with an intention to sweep away the anti-social activists from these places. It is an important step taken by the administration of Jamaica. The government remains silent in the provinces of Congo and due to this reason Congo has been renamed as “rape capital” of the world. Rape is so common in that place that the outrage of modesty has not been in light or not considered as crime. The civil war of Congo was the central pivot of all these offences that took place in the year 1996 and Rwandan civil war that took place in the year 1990. There is a massive invasion took place in Congo and the civilians were treated as a commodity. The women were treated as sex slave. The crime limit were extend to that height that there was a necessity regarding the international interference to maintain peace in those areas. The United Nation has taken various steps and many conventions took place for achieving the ultimate goal. However, the criminals are getting free chit due to the direct support of the political parties that are fuelling them for ulterior economic gain.     

Policies over Trinidad and Tobago:

Government in the provinces of Trinidad and Tobago has implemented some rights to protect the modesty of the women and for the protection of the common people and for the interest of the tourists or foreigner. An attempt to retain the principle of equality among the male and female has been made by the government. The government takes an appreciative method regarding the enforcement of women’s right and with an intention to develop the standard of their condition. Punishment as against those offences is taken in the provinces to eradicate the domestic violence from the society. It is one of the prime responsibilities of the government to strengthen the legislative policies and make a strict step against the violence of the drug peddlers and murderers. There are many units regarding the domestic violence and gender discriminations have been made in various areas of Trinidad and Tobago. An institute regarding the gender studies has been concocted in Trinidad that is affiliated by the University of West Indies. All these efforts create a positive impact on the politics and society of the Caribbean Islands. The crime rates in these islands are reducing day today. In the year 2003, domestic violence had reached in its highest peak and there were more than 30,000 domestic violence cases registered. In the provinces of Trinidad and Tobago, there was a provision regarding the action against the governmental official enacted. There is an institution namely Police Complaint Authority made that is act as an investigating team that are imposed with the duties to take certain necessary steps regarding the same. In the year 2005, violence regarding the human rights institutions were increased and to curb that problem rules against the anti-human right evolution has been evolved. Human trafficking is one of the emerging crimes in the areas of Trinidad and Tobago. The Trafficking in Persons Act was enacted in the year 2011 to control these problems. The police authorities are entrusted with more responsibilities that help to reduce the rate of crime in the portions of Trinidad and Tobago. 

Theoretical Framework 

According to the above literature review the researcher has focused on several crimes in the Republic and Democratic of Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.

Several criminology and criminological literature was present in the all countries which have framed by a common corporate-crime.  According to crime operation the illegal and sociology injurious or activities can occur due to the interference of political government. The political involvement sometimes increases the crime factors which affect economic production and distribution in the state. There are two types of crimes can be identified in the criminology part. One is state-initiated corporate crime and another is state-facilitated corporate crime. When the government employed corporation involved with any crime activities with the approval of government authorities then it will be called the state-initiative crime and when the government employed corporation involved with any crime activities without the approval of government authorities then it will be recognize as state-facilitated corporate crime. The political theories have an integrated theoretical model which has three levels: institutional environment, organizational and interaction where the political theories have been discussed. The aim of the political theories is to describe the incorporate crime actions through Motivation, opportunity structure and operational of control of the crime. The political economy theory has focused on the capitalism if corporate and state crime citing any lack of capitalism then the crime intends become increasing.

Motivation has been create several factors where culture of competition, economic pressure, organizational goals, and emphasis on performance depends on the economic stability and financial gains for the both government and individuals. The opportunity structure produce the availability of legal means, any impediments or limits, blocked goals or strain ad degree of accessibility to illegal options and resources. Their aims have been state to achieve every legitimate opportunity which affects the society. There are other different associations, stain theory and learning theory also explained in the political theory to describe the behavior of the crime.

According to the crime sociology theory, the criminology defines the study about the crime and punishment where the sociological theory set the conditions when a person commits the crime. The criminology includes the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior with several approaches.  The sociology theories make the value judgment through the criminology behavior of the criminals. The subjectivity and objectivity in the social theory made the concerns according to the general possibilities of the social actions by the individuals. The qualitative methods objectives considered the criminal actions on several perspectives.  

There are two complementary procedures used in the sociology theories in criminology where high rated crimes and low rated crimes are included. In the research methodology of the different crime trends in the Republic and Democratic of Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago already included. The government initiatives and their impacts in the society in all over the countries cover the criminal behaviors in the social perspective. The criminology knowledge must have logical criminal perspective where the criminal behavior must associate with criminal activities. The social theory on the criminal behavior must includes mechanism, situations, dynamic or development of the criminal activities.

In this research paper the things and objectives are discussed are defines the criminal trends in different countries. The questions are discussed in this research paper are memtioned below:

• What are the different crime trends in the developing country?
• What are the roles of the government to make the justice for general people for making the awareness?
• What are the movements and actions are taken by the government?
• What kind of the criminal intension are can be found in the Congo Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo) with Jamaica and the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago?
• How the Court of Justice has involved their laws in these develop countries?
• What are the effects on the people of those countries for the criminal intensions of the criminal?
• What are the legitimate and laws are applied in those countries for the criminal involvements?
• What are the common contributory factors between theCongo Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo) with Jamaica and the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago?
• Are the criminal contributory facts can be solved?
• What are the facts of solving the issues?

In this research the writer has research and analyze the methods of data analyze process which is one of the important part in this research paper. The research data analyze process has described through the qualitative or quantitative research methods where one of the process has been discussed (McMillan, H. and Schumacher 2014). The crime trends in the Congo in both Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo with Jamaica and the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago has make the affects in various countries where it was also found that in the Congo in the both part of Republic and Democratic and Jamaica the gang war is one of the most common crime whereas, in the Trinidad and Tobago is mostly well known for the trafficking and human trafficking (Irwin 2013). Therefore though in these countries the crime trends are not similar with each other but all are mostly known as for their crimes.

According to Neuendorf, 2016, they mentioned that the research paper approaches always defines mainly three types of approaches which are deductive, inductive and abductive. The deductive approach defines the different research on the data collection and the validity of those data. The inductive approach establishes the facts of the variety of theories which are analyzes by using the process of data analyze on the developed facts. The abductive approaches always express the facts which are not explain in normal ways but always establish the surprising facts of the data analyze process.

The research paper is described with various materials which help to analyze and describe the various criminal intensions. For researching on this paper two different research paper has been used which are qualitative research and quantitative research. The qualitative research defines the decision making objects and as well as the every statistic behaviors of the facts. . The quantitative research (Hayes 2016) the methods of inquiry where every model, methods, measurement of the research, every related theories and histories. The both ways of research methods are used in this research paper for collecting all data which are collected for providing the information (Heafner 2016).

The secondary data collections are using in the research paper which was the writer has found useful for fulfill all the purposes of the research paper and the various internet sources, scholars, journals, books are used as a secondary data. Though the uses of the secondary data information help to fulfill all the purposes in this research methods, few primary data are also collected and uses for the few sectors in the research paper (Cope and G 2014).

However, the research design describe the general strategy for the conducting the methods with every individual information. The quality and quantity of the research guidelines are also highlighted in this part. The values of the research paper, data analysis has been characterized in this part where the measurement of the research paper approaches the stability, equivalence and consistency of the given research topic (Heafner 2016).

In the Republic of Congo, the country is controlled by the multiparty political system with the collaboration of members of the president’s Congolese Labor Party (PCT). The Republic and Democratic Congo are part of the nation in the central Africa where the crime rare rate is normally recognized as medium (Cope and G 2014). The most crimes are normally happened in against the Americans. The Brazzaville known as one of the safest place in Congo because in that place crimes are occurred sometimes and the Embassy always make sure that people are not seen in the beaches at the night. The main motive of the research paper is to make the common contributory as per their crime. In Jamaica the crime ratio are high in violence and criminal intention.

In the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago crime intends are mainly found in the different types trafficking which are common crime. The gang murders and murders rate are the highest murder rate in that country.

In the research paper the writer is tried to highlight the perspective (Cope and G 2014) of the crime trends and successfully compares the common factors of the crime in between the countries. The similar factors of the crime rates define the criminal intension of the criminal and the involvement of the governments always shows the variety of then criminal trends. The involvements of the government, rape of the woman, gang war, drug and human trafficking are different similarities which are researched and analyzed (Garner, Roberta, and Scott 2013) in the research paper. The research design also establish the methods of researching and in this research paper it is briefly described the rating of crime year by year and the increasing and decreasing rates are also given properly which will help to analyze the researcher and describe the nature of the crime (Heafner 2016).

In the  research paper, the researched topic is one of the important issue in the worldwide where the criminal trends is make the fear for the people who stay those countries specially woman and children who are suffering the most. There is no guarantee of their security and people are safe in those countries which will make those countries more effective in their position in those world.  It is the aim of the research paper (Heafner 2016) to establish the facts and researched on the important issues and using the all reliability, responsibility and the tangibility the research can evaluate through all the data analyze. In this research paper the writer also uses every perspective on the criminal issues, crime trends and crime rates of the country.

The legislations and acts which are applied in these countries, the advantages, and disadvantages are also described in this research paper. The situation in those countries and the people from the country facing the problems all circumstances are also described in this research paper. For all the acts and application the initiative of governments of every country has their own authority to control the crime crisis which helps those courtiers to develop their issues. Therefore it can be stated that in this following research paper that the research design help to organize the whole research assignment for establish the criminal aspects of those countries (Garner, Roberta, and Scott 2013).  Under the law of those countries have developing day by day and work on that legislation. The common factors of crime trends between those countries are also discussed in the research paper. The research design always help to form the structure of any research paper and make understand the reader about the aim of the research and shows the positive ways of discussed topic. Here, the researcher has also described about some live evidences in the research paper which help to reader to understand about the research perspective and discussions on the said topic.

Though in the research paper the researcher have used the secondary data  for analyzing on the crime trend and rates of the in Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, he has also uses some related fact analyzing histories which help to make the research paper more reliable for describing the facts. Crime itself a controversial topic for the human and the sufferer people can feel the fear due to the crime (DeLisi 2014). It is important for the researcher to highlighted (Garner, Roberta, and Scott 2013) on those crime matter, analyze of the crime factors and discuss the about the nature and culture of the crime because without having any facts of the research paper, the reader may fail to understand the facts and the common factor of the crime. The relevant discussed acts and legislations of the Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago and the common factors in their legislation, governments initiatives and the developments of those legislation also discussed in the research paper. The affects upon the citizens of Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago countries how they care about those crime and the affect of the legislation how those will affect them will help to analyze the concepts of the said topic make them aware about the crime also discussed in this research paper (DeLisi 2014).  It is also included that relevant references are also in text in this research paper which help to find the related facts about the research paper. The all research signifies the whole process of the different crime scenes and the various kinds of the crimes in the Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago and how the crime trends intact with the crime situation and the development in the courts also defines in this research paper. . A number of Acts have been drafted among whom Suppression of Criminal Organization & proceeds of Crime Act of Jamaica 2014, Ant-Gang Act 2011 for the country parts of Trinidad and Tobago, The Law Reform (Fraudulent Transaction) (spcl provision) Act are main (Bailey 2016). It is a fact that the provision regarding these Acts is limited within the geographical boundaries of each nation. In the countries like Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, all that are part of the Caribbean island, a complete Act are need to be implemented for these parts as the nature of the crimes are quite similar (DeLisi 2014). 

Research philosophy stated the process of collecting the data and analyzes the methods. In the research philosophy the research approaches are always defines the qualitative or quantitative methods. The basic choice of the philosophy mainly depends as per the perspective of the researcher. The qualitative or quantitative methods shows the positivism of the research process during the analyzing the research paper.

In this research paper, the researcher has presents several findings which are relates to the crime trend of the Republic and Democratic Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago with the common crime factors. The analysis has been also discussed in this research paper. The various crime trends in those countries are mentioned below:

Congo is an African country. It is divided in two parts: Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo. In Republic of Congo, most of the offences are based on the economic gain. The political administrators back crimes in these areas. They instigate the terrorist to commit crime so that they can earn money from that (Fox and Kathleen 2013). The most dangerous areas in the Republic Congo are the Moungali area and Pointe-Noire. The crimes are mainly arising from gang war. The most unsafe place for the women is Congo. Heinous crimes like rape are a common matter in those areas. The most unpleasant matter is that the criminals are not going to be punished under any law and it is reason that they could not be prevented from doing any crime. In Congo, the crime rate started to go at hike from the massive attack by Rwandan and Ugandan mercenaries. During the first civil war in Congo, they had killed many civilians and brutally raped the women. Even, the government of these areas are directly support those criminals. In the year 2003, there was last civil war and that was ultimately finished. However, the crime rate has not been reduced. In the year 2016, there were 20 deaths reported in one part of the republic of Congo. Besides those problems, there is violation regarding the religious has also been taken place between the locals and the persons that are immigrated from the Western sides of the Africa. In Congo, there is no freedom of press and right to privacy. There is no international media are allowed. Even the governmental officials are engaged with extortion and with the killing and rape. The presidential nominee of Congo had burnt one man alive. The Congolese troops are allegedly killed the civilians.

In Democratic Republic of Congo has a long history; however, the crime has grown up during the Rwandan genocide in the year 1994. In that era, Congo had experienced violence like rape, killing, crisis regarding humanitarian that were increased at the time of cold war between the Rwanda and Uganda. The problem arose with the chaotic situation in the governmental policies. The supporter of the presidential nominee Bemba had killed five commandos and set fire on an alive man. Situation deteriorated when the members of the United Nation had started sexual abuse to other civilians. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, certain human rights units were made to control the chaos. The world got stunned when it was revealed through a report stated that during the year 2009, the human rights activists were alleged to rape more than 15,000 women in Congo. More than 2000 women were became sex slave in that period. According to the global report 2008, more than 6.9 million Congolese were killed and 509,000 people became refugee.

In a report “DR Congo: Outdated Approach, Misplaced Priorities (2013)”, it was revealed that there were a rebel movement burst out and it was alleged that the United nation had recruited child soldiers and murder the civilians a lot. Organizational crimes had observed in the areas of democratic Republic of Congo. In 2015, turmoil has been taken place when the united nation had denied terminating two officials who had a past history of killing people from their post in the provinces of Angola (Fox and Kathleen 2013). The government in those areas are completely failed to comply reasonable duties, rather supported the rebellions and instigate them to commit crime. It was the utmost duty of the government to ban those anti-social organizations that were conducted those crimes. However, the failure of the government leads to massive killing and give Congo a title like the “rape capital” of the world.      

Jamaica is the part of an island which was situated in the Caribbean Sea which was the third largest island in the Greater Antilles. In the Jamaica there are some palaces which are famous for the several places like Kingston, Montego Bay and Spanish Town. They have the most rates in murders and also announced as “a national challenge of unprecedented proportions”.  It is also found that in a discussion that the Jamaica has the lowest amount of the crime rates when they got the independence but later it was also found that they have the highest murder rates in the calculation as per the United Nation estimates (Fox and Kathleen 2013). The crimes are mostly related with the murder, illegal trade and gang wars. However, their government has found that the crime rates are decreasing recently which was shows the development in the legislation.

In the Jamaica, the government also found that the citizens of that country have never accepted the homosexuality which made several nuisances in the country. The homosexuality is though not illegal in Jamaica but the government has already applied the Offences against the Person Act where they have already tried to protect the LGBT community people because they faced the attacks by other people. The Jamaica government has already taken several steps towards the gay people. It is one of the major issues in Jamaica.

The Trinidad and Tobago which is also known as Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a twin island which is situated in the mainland of the South America. This is one of the third richest countries after United States and Canada according to the   GDP (PPP) per capita. However in crime it is have the highest number of murder and it is also found that almost 529 people are murdered from past few years. They are most of gang murders occur in few part of Spain in the Trinidad. There are several issues of murders which are basically occurs due to over use of drugs and gang murders which is the reason for the chaos in those parts of the country. The government has already taken several steps towards the issues but the huge numbers of gang wars are impossible to control (Fox and Kathleen 2013). The police authorities also found that the gangs are mainly related with the use of drugs which is main resin of the violence in between them and make the conflicts. The conflicts are the reasons of the murders. The police authorities also working on the improving of their powers and applications of the law for those gang members who are the reason for those violence. They are increasing the uses of the forensic evidences and surveillance technology (CCTV cameras) which are operated through various experts. According to the survey, report of January 2017 the crime rate in Trinidad and Tobago has increased 6.1% than 2016. In the year 2017, the serious crime rating has become increased 21.3% in the area of Trinidad and Tobago. However, in Jamaica the murder rating is deteriorating unexpectedly. In 2010, the crime rate in Jamaica was 7.5% while in 2013 the rate was 5%. In Congo, the rate of homicide in the year 2010 was 14% (Gentle-Genitty et al. 2017).

There is another issue in the Trinidad and Tobago is kidnapping. The numbers of kidnapping are increasing day by day which became one of the high rated crimes in that country. The kidnapping rate has been reduced dramatically and the extortion cases are also reported less than the year of 2005. However, the violence rate is still on rise in those areas and the government need to take care of that. The other kinds of crime which are found in Trinidad and Tobago are theft and violent crimes. In the Laventille government has found most rated of crimes and people are related with the drugs, drugs trafficking, gangs and murders (Fox and Kathleen 2013).

As per above discussion, the government has already took several policies regarding the crime issues in Trinidad and Tobago for the protection of the citizens and the women. The government always has their own enforcement on the women’s rights which are developing day by day according to their standards. The governments keep their responsibilities towards the enforcement systems and legislative policies. The governments have applied various strategies for preventing the crime. They have use different strategies like situational prevention, policing strategies and incarceration. The other strategies are used in the prevention of crimes are CCTV Cameras, environmental strategies and street lighting. Policing strategies which are used by polices and most important enforcement of the law (Gentle-Genitty et al. 2017).

In a study, it had been found that most of the urban states face most crimes. In the Jamaica the government has uses several CCTV cameras which they used as evidences of the crimes. The government is trying to install several cameras for the safety purposes of the citizen. The police force and the enforcement of the law give the accessibility to the use of the CCTV cameras in every place. In every places government also tried to put several street lights which may reduce the crime trends in those countries. Often times, street lights are implemented for the sake of pedestrians or for traffic purposes; however the use of increased lighting in streets has been thought to be effective in helping to reduce crime because it reduces the level of fear (Maguire, EDWARD and Gordon 2015).

Implementation of several police force is one of the great strategy for reduce of the crimes. They are places in every high rated crime places for protect those places. In Trinidad and Tobago the government has applies The Trinidad & Tobago Police Service Hot Spots Patrol Strategy (HSPS) which was found very reliable for those country help to reduce the rank of crimes. Hot spot policing decreases the number of property crime in public places but it may be more difficult to control violent crimes such as rape and domestic assaults. Adding more police to the street can be more costly and the argument can be made that more police is not an efficient means to solving the root of the problem. The study in Trinidad and Tobago used evidence based policing in order to rank the top 40 districts that had reported violent crime.

The policies of the incarceration is another strategy which are applying now days in those countries because as day by day the crime rates are growing more, therefore it is needed to imprison this criminal and give them proper rehabilitation which help them to not go back to the criminal worlds.

According to the various crime reports and thesis that are engraved in the criminal history of these three nations, some common factors can be pointed out. For instance, in Congo and Jamaica, the process of gang war can be seen and the natures of both the crimes are quite similar. In both the countries, there were same pattern of crime are to be noticed. In both the areas, there were organizational pattern applied. Organizational crime means those crimes that were pre-planned and complied in well manner. Organizational crimes arise from gang war. In the country like Congo, the gang war began during the civil war. The Rwandan rebellions formed gang to torture the inhabitants of Congo and used to rape the women. The amount of Rape got so increased that Congo became the most unsafe place for women (Maguire, EDWARD and Gordon 2015). The lives of the civilians are become one of the potential risk for the nation. The rebellions and the mercenaries were used to kill the civilians as if they were part of a game. In Jamaica, the rate of the murder becomes too much brutal that it becomes one of the most dangerous places for living in the world. The crime rate in Congo became high because of direct support of the government (Munroe, Michelle and Blake 2017). However, in Jamaica, the situation is now under control and the crime rate is deteriorating on daily basis.

In the countries like Trinidad and Tobago, there is a similarity in the pattern of crime with Jamaica. In both the countries, the rowdiness of the drug peddlers was at hike. There were one more similarity and that is the amount of human trafficking. The political supports made them so much powerful that they were hard to resist doing the crimes. The drug peddlers made the young generation their target and used to treat them as their slave (Gentle-Genitty et al. 2017). In Jamaica, the drug trafficking created a serious impact on the economy as well as the social life of the Jamaica. The social and economic lives of both the countries were seriously hampered for those mishaps (Munroe, Michelle and Blake 2017). All countries that are Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, political support help them to instigate the criminals and the political leaders were alleged to extort money from the civilians. International institutions like United Nations had opened its branches there with a view to maintain peace, but they were also alleged to commit crimes. Transnational organized crimes were followed up in all countries (Maguire, EDWARD and Gordon 2015).

Both the murder and robbery is another major issue in Jamaica. The uses of the weapon are also increases in between the criminals which increase the crime rates in the Trinidad Tobago which are the most common facts in between these countries. The drug trafficking is another common factors between the countries. The basic risk factors are affect the youth people who are mainly involved with the risk. They get attracted through those illegal activities which are also national crisis issues for those countries. Those are against of the violence and crime protections in internationally. CARICOM has taken several steps through international regions for the prevention of the drug trafficking in those countries. The Regional Task Force on Crime and Security (RTFCS) also works on the crime and violation reduction which was also one of the initiatives on those countries (O’Neal et al. 2016). The Trinidad and Tobago is a country where it can be found that those countries are developed through the political and population structures which is another way of structuring the crime trends in those countries. The Criminal Justice System has tried to measure the criminal jurisdiction system in those various crimes of robbery and domestic violence. The violence against of the women and girls and the rape rates are also affected with the crime trend in their countries and makes an important issue in those countries (Coid et al. 2013).

The violent crimes always different rather than other crime like theft or any other crimes. Persons who get involvement with the any kind of nocturnal activities and vulnerable violence those are called the criminals (McCoy, John, and W 2017). They get involvement with various crimes like homicide, rape, assault and other violent crimes. Most of the time woman became the victims of those violent crimes. Congo already known as ‘Rape Capital’ it means in these countries women are not safe at all (Munroe, Michelle and Blake 2017). Not only Congo but also in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago women are not safe also. Maybe they are not getting the high ranked in rape but the women are not safe completely. The rape is one of the vulnerable crimes where not only criminal intensions presents but also it affects the mental condition of the victim (O’Neal et al. 2016).

In the drug trafficking Jamaica get the highest ranks rather than Trinidad and Tobago. This is another similar fact between those countries. The illegal drug trafficking is not only occur in that country but every country in world (Coid et al. 2013).

The gang war and the gang violence another common factors in these countries. In the Caribbean gangs violence is one of the most common violence and crime (Fox and Kathleen 2013). Most of the gang crimes are organized and involved with illegal activities like drug trafficking, illegal activities, rapes and other violent crimes. Most of the gang members are male who are actually involved with the crimes and they did not care about the governments or any other police forces and laws of the countries (McCoy, John, and W 2017). Gang structure and organization is very relevant feature when differentiating between gangs. Existing research on gangs in the Caribbean shows that most gangs in the region have some level of organization and structure. In Trinidad and Tobago about 95% of gang members indicated that their gang possessed one or more of the following organizational qualities: name, territory, regular meetings, rules, punishment, special signs, symbols, clothing, drug sale, and other crimes (Maguire, EDWARD and Gordon 2015). In Jamaica, street gangs operate within a hierarchy and division of labor (Coid et al. 2013). The higher the level of gang organization, the higher is the level associate to delinquency, violent offenses, drug sales and victimization of gang members. In the gang members the involvements of the females are also found which the new trends of the gang violence are (Decker et al. 2014). The role of girls in gangs ranges from taking care of the male members to drug transportation because police get less interest on them. In the Trinidad and Tobago it is found in a report that females are joining in the gang which increase at least 40% and in Jamaica female involvements also increasing but not like Trinidad and Tobago.

In this research paper the researcher has focused on the various finding and objects of crime trends and how they could be applied by the criminals and what are the objectives o the crimes also included in this research paper (Decker et al. 2014).

In this research paper the researcher has finds several objects which helps him to analyze the research topic and give several findings related to the crimes in the Democratic and Republic of Congo, Jamaica and Trinidad Tobago. The crime and violence always related with each other because it affect to the society and they became the sufferer. Therefore, it be stated that through this research the reader can get a complete analysis of the data process. This is the aim of the research paper to give the findings about the crime trends. Therefore, the findings in this research paper get the involvement of the gang members of both male and female and their participation in the violent crimes. It also found that most of the crimes are organized and the criminals are always getting involved with their own intension. The every strategies are also briefly described in the recommendation with every possible finding.

Conclusion 

As discussed above, Jamaica, the Republic of Congo and Trinidad & Tobago are countries that have high crime rates and the severity of the crimes have become a global threat. Although the governments of the respective nations have made attempts and enacted statutory legislations in order to eliminate the atrocious crimes. In the republic of Congo, crimes related to terrorism, kidnapping, rapes and extortion are on the rise and the law enforcement officers are unable to bring the crime rates under control.

The United Nation has undertaken the responsibility to bring about a change in the crime rates in the country. In 2012, the council for Human Rights has published a report on sexual violence and in that report and alleged that the Ugandan troops had been primarily responsible for the incline in the crime rate in the country. The rural areas are more affected as compared to the urban areas due to the lack of effective implementation of the statutory provisions initiated by the government. The wrongdoers, especially, the rapists, get away without being punished and the victims are left with no option but to repent and suffer as there is no strict legal framework to administer justice to the victims.

Similarly, in Jamaica, there is an incline in the crime rate and the crimes are mostly related with the murder, illegal trade and gang wars. Another issue that is prevalent in the country is the acceptance of homosexuality which led to several nuisances in the country. Although it has not been legalized in the country, but the government has taken initiative to safeguard the people belonging to the LGBT community at and when they faced any forms of attacks from the general public of the country. However, despite the government initiative it still persists to be a major concern in the country.

Further, in Trinidad and Tobago, also known as Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, being one of the richest countries has the highest crime rate. The primary reason behind the commission of the crimes is over use of drugs and gang murders which resulted in chaos in most part of the country. Despite governmental initiatives, the law enforcement officers have been unable to bring down the crime rate or control huge numbers of gang wars.

As per the various crime reports that are embedded in the criminal history of the three respective nations, there are certain common factors that attributes to the incline in the crime rates of the respective countries. For instance- in Jamaica and Congo, the gang war and the nature of the process are quite similar. Congo became the most unsafe place for women owing to the increase in the crimes against women. In all the countries, same pattern of crime are to be noticed. In Trinidad and Tobago as well as in Jamaica, there were organizational pattern applied while committing the crimes. Under such circumstances, it is highly imperative that the government of the respective countries must initiate more strict and effective policies in order to bring down the crime rates in the respective countries, thus ensuring national security and safety of the nationals.

The responses to the incline in the crime trends and the emerging issues in the above discussed countries have not been sufficient with respect to the prevention of the crimes. The government of respective countries has taken initiatives to bring down the crime rates, however, despite such initiatives the crime rates have not yet come under control. In order to ensure safety of the subjects of the country, the governments of the respective countries are recommended to adopt the measures that prioritize the nationals and the security of the country before anything else.  

In Jamaica, the government may take initiatives to minimize the targeted community interventions and promote care and awareness for vulnerable groups. The primary objective of the Jamaican Government should be to strengthen the capability of the communities to take part in maintaining a safe and secure society. In case of conflicts among the community groups and councils, the same must be resolved to promote unity among the group. The government must aim at modernizing and reforming the law enforcement system and implement effective management structure. The government must ensure adequate accountability within the law enforcement officials.

In the Republic of Congo, the government must ensure that the police department is provided with additional training to deal with emergency situations, especially in the rural areas where most of the wrongdoers get away without being punished. The police officers are poorly equipped, inefficient and are corrupt in nature which facilitates the criminals to get away easily. The government should make initiatives to bring about consistency in the administering laws and regulations and to ensure that every person has easy access to the legal assistance.

In Trinidad and Tobago, poor quality of policing and lack of adequate human resources leads to the increase in the crime rate of the country. The government must ensure that police patrols are strengthened and the communication lines with the affected communities are improved. The young generation has easy access to drugs, arms and ammunition and low commitment to school. The government must ensure that effective steps are taken to prohibit the youth from having access to drugs and arms and ammunition.

To sum up, apart from the policy initiatives that the governments may make to bring down the crime rates in the countries, the countries may make use of technology to minimize the crime rate. For instance, the governments may install CCTVs in the streets along with the street lights for the safety of the general public, especially, women. In regards to the law enforcement agencies and the administrative department, it must be ensured that the evidence collection procedure is prevented from being tampered. The quality of policing must be improved so that no wrongdoers can get away and justice is done to the victim. Therefore, the government must provide speedy redressal to the criminal activities and ensure national security and the safety of its nationals.

 

Figure 1: Rape Percentage in Congo from 2010-16

[Source: (Gettleman 2017)]

 

Figure 2: Gang wars and involvement of women in Trinidad & Tobago

[Source: (“The Gang’ Problem” 2017)]

Figure 3: Involvement of the government in stopping crime in Trinidad & Tobago

[Source: (“”A State Of Emergency Will Not Stop Crime”” 2017)]

Figure 4: Drug trafficking in Jamaica

[Source: (“Jamaica” 2017)]

Murder, constituting a crime against humanity in violation of article 7(1)(a) of the Rome Statute;

Wilful killings, constituting a war crime in violation of article 8(2)(a)(i) of the Rome Statute;

Inhumane acts, constituting a crime against humanity in violation of article 7(1)(k) of the Rome Statute;

Inhumane or cruel treatment, constituting a war crime in violation of article 8(2)(a)(ii) or (c)(i) of the Rome Statute;

Attack against a civilian population, constituting a war crime in violation of article 8(2)(b)(i) or (e)(i) of the Rome Statute;

Pillaging, constituting a war crime in violation of article 8(2)(b)(xvi) or (e)(v) of the Rome Statute.

Rape and sexual slavery, constituting crimes against humanity in violation of article 7(1)(g) of the Rome Statute;

The Proceeds of Crime Act in the Republic of Jamaica

The Crime Justice Reform Act

Reference 

“”A State Of Emergency Will Not Stop Crime””. 2017. https://trinidadexpress.com/20170203/news/a-state-of-emergency-will-not-stop-crime

“Jamaica”. 2017. U.S. Department Of State. https://www.state.gov/j/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2014/vol1/222912.htm.

“The ‘Gang’ Problem”. 2017. https://www.trinidadexpress.com/commentaries/The-gang-problem-220889701.html

Baaz, M.E. and Stern, M., 2015. 12 Research in the rape capital of the world. Masquerades of War, p.197.

Baaz, Maria Eriksson, and Maria Stern. “Researching wartime rape in the Democratic Republic of Congo.” Researching War: Feminist Methods, Ethics and Politics (2016): 117.

Bailey, C., 2016. Crime and Violence in Barbados: IDB Series on Crime and Violence in the Caribbean. Inter-American Development Bank.

Banwell, Stacy. “Rape and sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A case study of gender-based violence.” Journal of Gender Studies 23, no. 1 (2014): 45-58.

Beyrer, C., 2014. Pushback: the current wave of anti-homosexuality laws and impacts on health. PLoS medicine, 11(6), p.e1001658.

Boman, John H., Cesar J. Rebellon, and Ryan C. Meldrum. “Objectives A key question in the general deterrence literature has been the extent to which the police reduce crime. Definitive answers to this statement, however, are difficult to come by because while more police may reduce crime, higher crime rates may also increase police levels, by

Braga, A.A., Papachristos, A.V. and Hureau, D.M., 2014. The effects of hot spots policing on crime: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly, 31(4), pp.633-663.

Brandt, J.S., Nolte, C. and Agrawal, A., 2016. Deforestation and timber production in Congo after implementation of sustainable forest management policy. Land Use Policy, 52, pp.15-22.

Brontinghom, P. and Brontinghom, P., 2013. 5. Crime pattern theory. Environmental criminology and crime analysis, p.78.

Brounéus, K., 2014. The women and peace hypothesis in peacebuilding settings: Attitudes of women in the wake of the Rwandan genocide. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 40(1), pp.125-151.

Chadee, D., Ng Ying, N.K., Chadee, M. and Heath, L., 2016. Fear of crime: the influence of general fear, risk, and time perspective. Journal of interpersonal violence, p.0886260516650970.

Cohen, H.J., 2015. Who Lost Congo: The Consequences of Covert Action. Foreign Aff., 94, p.169.

Coid, Jeremy W., Simone Ullrich, Robert Keers, Paul Bebbington, Bianca L. DeStavola, Constantinos Kallis, Min Yang, David Reiss, Rachel Jenkins, and Peter Donnelly. “Gang membership, violence, and psychiatric morbidity.” American journal of psychiatry 170, no. 9 (2013): 985-993.

Cope, Diane G. “Methods and meanings: credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative research.” In Oncology nursing forum, vol. 41, no. 1. 2014.

Dallaire, R.A. and Whitman, S., 2015. Preventing the use of child soldiers, preventing genocide. UN Chronicle, 52(2), pp.49-52.

Dawkins, Marika, Camille Gibson, and Dahlia Stoddart. “Drugs and Drug Control in Jamaica.” Pan-African Issues in Drugs and Drug Control: An International Perspective (2016): 160.

Dawkins, Marika, Camille Gibson, and Dahlia Stoddart. “Drugs and Drug Control in Jamaica.” Pan-African Issues in Drugs and Drug Control: An International Perspective (2016): 160.

Decker, Scott H., David C. Pyrooz, Gary Sweeten, and Richard K. Moule. “Validating self-nomination in gang research: Assessing differences in gang embeddedness across non-, current, and former gang members.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 30, no. 4 (2014): 577-598.

DeLisi, Matt, James O. Spruill, Michael G. Vaughn, and Chad R. Trulson. “Do gang members commit abnormal homicide?.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 39, no. 1 (2014): 125-138.

Dreshaj, S., Ahmeti, S., Ramadani, N., Dreshaj, G., Humolli, I. and Dedushaj, I., 2016. Current situation of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever in Southeastern Europe and neighboring countries: a public health risk for the European Union?. Travel medicine and infectious disease, 14(2), pp.81-91.

Fehl, C., 2014. Growing up rough: the changing politics of justice at the International Criminal Court (Vol. 127, p. 37). DEU.

Fox, Kathleen A. “New developments and implications for understanding the victimization of gang members.” Violence and victims 28, no. 6 (2013): 1015-1040.

Francois, Danielle K. “Profiling Murder Cases in Trinidad and Tobago: Using Victimology to Explain Murder in the Capital.” PhD diss., University of Liverpool, 2014.

Garner, Roberta, and Gregory M. Scott. Doing qualitative research: designs, methods, and techniques. Pearson Education, 2013.

Gentle-Genitty, Carolyn, Jangmin Kim, Eun-Hye Yi, Douglas Slater, Beverly Reynolds, and Natasha Bragg. “Comprehensive assessment of youth violence in five Caribbean countries: Gender and age differences.” Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment (2017): 1-15.

Gettleman, Jeffrey. 2017. “New Study Suggests A Higher Rate Of Rape In Congo”. Nytimes.Com. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/12/world/africa/12congo.html

Harriot, A.D. and Jones, M., 2016. Crime and Violence in Jamaica: IDB Series on Crime and Violence in the Caribbean. Inter-American Development Bank.

Hayes, L. J. B. “Introduction.” In Stories of Care: A Labour of Law, pp. 1-29. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016.

Heafner, Tina L., Paul G. Fitchett, and Ryan T. Knowles. “Using Big Data, Large-Scale Studies, Secondary Datasets, and Secondary Data Analysis as Tools to Inform Social Studies Teaching and Learning.” In Rethinking Social Studies Teacher Education in the Twenty-First Century, pp. 359-383. Springer International Publishing, 2016.

Henry, A., 2015. ‘Nostalgia for what cannot be’: an interpretive and social biography of Stuart Hall’s early years in Jamaica and England, 1932–1959. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 36(2), pp.227-242.

Irwin, Sarah. “Qualitative secondary data analysis: Ethics, epistemology and context.” Progress in Development Studies 13, no. 4 (2013): 295-306.

Jackson, Asheka. “Gang Risk Factors among Urban Jamaican Youth: A Qualitative Analysis.” International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences 11, no. 2 (2016): 132.

Jaffe, R., 2013. The hybrid state: Crime and citizenship in urban Jamaica. American Ethnologist, 40(4), pp.734-748.

Jennings-Bey, Timothy, Sandra D. Lane, Robert A. Rubinstein, Dessa Bergen-Cico, Arnett Haygood-El, Helen Hudson, Shaundel Sanchez, and Frank L. Fowler. “The trauma response team: a community intervention for gang violence.” Journal of Urban Health 92, no. 5 (2015): 947-954.

Joseph, Janice. “Crime and Punishment in the Caribbean.” The Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment (2016).

Joseph, Janice. “Crime and Punishment in the Caribbean.” The Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment (2016).

Lawry, L., de Brouwer, A.M., Smeulers, A., Rosa, J.C., Kisielewski, M., Johnson, K., Scott, J. and Wieczorek, J., 2014. The Use of Population-Based Surveys for Prosecutions at the International Criminal Court: A Case Study of Democratic Republic of Congo. International Criminal Justice Review, 24(1), pp.5-21.

Leatherman, Janie, and Nadezda Griffin. “Unsafe Spaces: Trends and Challenges in Gender-Based Violence.” World Politics Review-First Response: Health Work in Conflict Zones (2014).

Lewis-Fokum, Y. and Colvin, C., 2017. Tracing the Discourses of Accountability and Equity: The Case of the Grade 4 Literacy Test in Jamaica. Changing English, 24(1), pp.11-23.                          

Lim, B.K., 2015. Gomes, GA, and FA Reid. 2015. Bats of Trini-dad and Tobago: a field guide and natural history. Trinibats, Port of Spain, Trinidad, viii+ 286 pp. ISBN: 978-0-692-44408-5, US $40. Acta Chiropterologica, 17(1), pp.199-200.

Lindsey, Summer, and Monica Toft. “Reporting Rape in Congo: A Unique or Paradigmatic Case?.” (2014).

Maguire, EDWARD R., and J. Gordon. “Faith-based interventions for reducing gang violence in the Caribbean: reflections from a professor and a priest.” Gangs in the Caribbean: responses of state and society (2015): 301-336.

Maguire, Edward R., Devon Johnson, Joseph B. Kuhns, and Robert Apostolos. “The effects of community policing on fear of crime and perceived safety: findings from a pilot project in Trinidad and Tobago.” Policing and Society (2017): 1-20.

Maxson, Cheryl Lee, ed. The modern gang reader. Oxford University Press, 2014.

McCoy, John, and W. Andy Knight. “Homegrown Violent Extremism in Trinidad and Tobago: Local Patterns, Global Trends.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 40, no. 4 (2017): 267-299.

McCoy, John, and W. Andy Knight. “Homegrown Violent Extremism in Trinidad and Tobago: Local Patterns, Global Trends.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 40, no. 4 (2017): 267-299.

McMillan, James H., and Sally Schumacher. Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry. Pearson Higher Ed, 2014.

Moffett, L., 2015. Accountability for forced displacement in Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda before the International Criminal Court.

Mohammed, Anne-Marie. “The Impact of Crime on Tourist Arrivals-A Comparative Analysis of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.” Social and Economic Studies 64, no. 2 (2015): 153-180.

Mohammed, Anne-Marie. “The Impact of Crime on Tourist Arrivals-A Comparative Analysis of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.” Social and Economic Studies 64, no. 2 (2015): 153-180.

Mulumeoderhwa, Maroyi, and Geoff Harris. “Forced sex, rape and sexual exploitation: attitudes and experiences of high school students in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo.” Culture, health & sexuality 17, no. 3 (2015): 284-295.

Munroe, Michelle A., and Damion K. Blake. “Governance and disorder: neoliberalism and violent change in Jamaica.” Third World Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2017): 580-603.

Nackoney, J., Molinario, G., Potapov, P., Turubanova, S., Hansen, M.C. and Furuichi, T., 2014. Impacts of civil conflict on primary forest habitat in northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1990–2010. Biological conservation, 170, pp.321-328.

Neuendorf, Kimberly A. The content analysis guidebook. Sage, 2016.

O’Neal, Eryn Nicole, Scott H. Decker, Richard K. Moule Jr, and David C. Pyrooz. “Girls, gangs, and getting out: Gender differences and similarities in leaving the gang.” Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 14, no. 1 (2016): 43-60.

Otey, M.L., 2015. Transnational Organized Crime.

Parsons, Sara. “Crime trends.” The Routledge Handbook of Irish Criminology (2015): 15.

Pyrooz, David C., Jillian J. Turanovic, Scott H. Decker, and Jun Wu. “Taking stock of the relationship between gang membership and offending: A meta-analysis.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 43, no. 3 (2016): 365-397.

Saridakis, George, Anne-Marie Mohammed, and Sandra Sookram. “Does crime affect firm innovation? Evidence from Trinidad and Tobago.” Economics Bulletin 35, no. 2 (2015): 1205-1215.

Shelton, D., 2015. Remedies in international human rights law. Oxford University Press, USA.

Tanner, S. and Dupont, B., 2015. Police work in international peace operation environments: a perspective from Canadian police officers in the MINUSTAH. Policing and society, 25(6), pp.663-680.

Trenholm, Jill, Pia Olsson, Martha Blomqvist, and Beth Maina Ahlberg. “The global, the ethnic and the gendered war: women and rape in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.” Gender, Place & Culture 23, no. 4 (2016): 484-502.

Tull, D.M., 2016. United Nations peacekeeping and the use of force: the Intervention Brigade in Congo is no model for success.

Van der Bracht, Koen, Hélène Flaam, Koen Vlassenroot, and Bart Van de Putte. “Conflict and insecurity: A sociological perspective on perceptions of insecurity in conflict-affected Democratic Republic of Congo.” Current Sociology 65, no. 3 (2017): 336-355.

Verweijen, J. and Marijnen, E., 2016. The counterinsurgency/conservation nexus: guerrilla livelihoods and the dynamics of conflict and violence in the Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Journal of Peasant Studies, pp.1-21.

Verweijen, J., 2017. Luddites in the Congo? Analyzing violent responses to the expansion of industrial mining amidst militarization. City, pp.1-17.

Walsh, A. and Jorgensen, C., 2017. Criminology: the essentials. SAGE Publications.

Wang, B., Yang, W., Sherman, V.R. and Meyers, M.A., 2016. Pangolin armor: overlapping, structure, and mechanical properties of the keratinous scales. Acta biomaterialia, 41, pp.60-74.

Watt, E., 2017. The right to privacy and the future of mass surveillance. The International Journal of Human Rights, pp.1-27.

Williams, Dianne. “Citizen Insecurity in Trinidad and Tobago and the Applicability of the Concept of the Mafia State.” Contemporary Security and Defense Issues in the Caribbean (2016): 63.

Wozniak, J.F., 2015. Richard Quinney’s The Social Reality of Crime: A Marked Departure from and Reinterpretation of Traditional Criminology. Social Justice, 41(3), p.197.

Zhu, Joe. Quantitative models for performance evaluation and benchmarking: data envelopment analysis with spreadsheets. Vol. 213. Springer, 2014.

Zihindula, Ganzamungu, and Pranitha Maharaj. “Risk of sexual violence: Perspectives and experiences of women in a hospital in the Democratic Republic of Congo.” Journal of community health 40, no. 4 (2015): 736-743.