Psychology of terrorists and its impact on civilians
This assignment aims to develop a critical evaluation of the validity of psychological interpretations of terrorist activity. In this context, psychology of terrorists is not only necessary to take into account. However, the impact of terrorist activities on the psychology of civilians is also important to take into consideration. However, the main responsibility of this assignment is to analyze and synthesize what has been informed from the scientific and professional literature about the ‘psychology of terrorism’. As psychology is considered as “the science of human behavior”, it appears a rationale, and potentially productive, line of investigation. Hence, in terms of understanding terrorism, it requires to take a rational approach in putting close observation on terrorism.
Detailed biography of terrorists is essential to take into account in this reference. However, the lack of information relating to the biography of terrorists is the one of the premium barriers in terms of understanding the psychology of terrorists. Any psychological trauma and social unjust in the biography of terrorists is important to take into consideration for comprehending why an individual becomes a terrorist. It is regarded that in order to change human nature and dimensions of terrorism, three interlocking trends are responsible: globalization of commerce, travel and information share which causes economic inequality and ideological competition within the people in the world.
Terrorism is considered to be a very big and broad factor. This is one of the most menacing facts in the contemporary society (Jongman 2017). The entire international community is very much concerned about this fact. All the people are terrified indeed. This has become one of the most powerful things in the present situation. The international community is very much worried about all the things that are taking place all over the world. The terrorist activities are increasing everyday indeed. In this context it is extremely essential to define the term ‘terrorism’ (Hiro 2014). All the powerful states have included the factor of terrorism in their foreign policies indeed. The sources of the growth of the terrorist activities are being aggravated by the invention of the new communication technologies. The terrorists nowadays can reach to their targets very fast and swiftly indeed with the help of these technologies. It is not that terrorism did not exist in the past. However, the threats have increased a lot of terrorism in the past few decades (Jongman 2017). It can also be critically argued by Jongman that terrorism has been a menacing thing in the contemporary period. The other critics have argued that the terrorism is not the outcome of one single aspect. The psychology of the terrorists also has a big part in understanding the reasons for terrorism.
Biographies of terrorists and globalization
It is very difficult to give a proper definition of the term ‘terrorism’. This term is very complex indeed. The terrorism can rise from many instincts be it religious or atrocities between the nations. Terrorism is a sheer reflection of menace for most people. It is very important to trace the psychology that works behind the making of the terrorists (Combs 2017). The terrorist groups can be different international and regional terrorist groups. The different things like the impact of terrorism have shed a great influence in shaping up of the community properly. There are many definitions of terrorism. Some people think its to be a mere representation of the political differences between the two nations. The aspects of anger arise from the very core set of beliefs of the people. There are some important medium of terrorism like the guerilla warfare, insurrection, religious rebellion and many other things (Combs 2017). The movements are organized by the followers of certain religious groups. These are just organized terrorist activities that are very hard to combat indeed (Thackrah 2013). The acts of terrorism are directed towards the common people or the civilians so the terrorists can send a message to their enemies. Combs (2017), has argued that the terrorists have a proper psychology that is completely different from others. Their sole intention is to spread terror and threatening everyone. Others have confronted that the terrorists are not born like that. They are the victims of certain situations. That is how the terrorists spread their activities all across the world.
Terrorism has risen to be a violent activity. It can be called the disease of the society. This disease has to be getting rid of somehow indeed. Otherwise, this would spread like an epidemic in all countries and continents of the world. It has been observed that the most powerful counties in Europe and USA have been the victims of these terrorist activities all over. This is why the countries are very much worried about these facts. United States has been the biggest victim of terrorism in the last few decades when their epitome of pride, World Trade Center was crashed down to earth by the terrorists in September, 2001.
The national leaders are of the opinion that terrorism always kills the common people and it is motivated by the political purposes of some individuals or groups. The political and religious aspects have been mostly highlighted in terms of defining terrorism. The most important elements that can be attributed to terrorism are the premeditation, political motivation, noncombatants, and the existence of the perpetrators. The first aspect or element of terrorism refers to the premeditation of committing the activity (Gerhards and Schäfer 2014). It has to be mentioned that terrorism cannot be taken as a certain instance because it is not case of accident. It is completely a case of series of premeditated decisions that are implemented indeed. The act of terrorism cannot be that much successful all the time but the intention of committing the attacks should always be there in the minds of the terrorists. One cannot simply attack at an area of mass population and explode it completely (Gerhards and Schäfer 2014). The arguments are done on the different dimensions of terrorism. The critics have already discussed that many causes like social and psychological are mixed with each other and gives birth to such an evil like terrorism. The political elements are very much present in the terrorist activities. Gerhards and Scahafer (2014), have argued that the intention of the terrorists are fixed on the mass destruction and they are quite premeditated in their target as well.
Definition of terrorism and its factors
According to the second element, it is considered to be the most important element in the modern context (Carlton and Schaerf 2015). The aspect of politics is very much important for the shaping of the international communities. The criminal rage can be an outcome of the political atrocity indeed. The physical security of the countries has to be secured by any means indeed. This is why the leaders of the countries are keen on making new policies that would stop the terrorists to make such plans of destructions. The new laws are being enforced to combat the stop the terrorist activities (LaFree, Dugan and Miller 2014). Whatever the cause might be, the end result is the same and it is nothing than mass destruction. Some various social issues are also interrelated with the factors of the political issues. The religious issues have also come to light in this aspect as well. It is a complete threat to many issues indeed.
Counter terrorism is a very important aspect that is very deeply related with the aspect of terrorism. The governments of almost all the countries are trying their level best and adopting policies that could help them to counter against the attack of the terrorists (Heath?Kelly 2013). The government is trying very hard to identify all the potential terrorists; they want to keep an eye on the activities that are happening surrounding them. They want to keep a strong vigil across the national borders and state borders as well.
It has been often seen that the criminals go through a certain process that is called the radicalization (Walters and Monaghan 2013). It is the duty of the common people who are engaged in the common good of the society like the teachers and community workers to promote the vigil process. They should have the farsightedness of identifying the people who are involved in the criminal activities within the society. They should report the names of these people to the police. Thus the people will try to find them out and catch them (Walters and Monaghan 2013). If the criminals can be caught on time, the terrorist activities will stop momentarily indeed. As this radicalization process leads the way to terrorism, these activities can be stopped by a bit of consciousness (Archetti 2015). The radicalization process is a very important procedure for the making of the terrorists indeed. The social environment often takes the way that they feel insecure in a certain society. They feel that they are out of the society. This is why they commit the outrageous things in the society that completely shakes the country from within. The terrorists suffer from uncertainty in the society and they think they are not at all a part of it. They very often feel angry (Walters and Monaghan 2013). They feel alienated from the society and take the ultimate step in the negative way to make a mark in the society. The extreme anger leads them to kill many people. The terrorists feel that they have a political involvement in the context but it is not at all worth it indeed. The amount of power they have is not enough to make the proper change in the society.
Counter-terrorism
These terrorists often find the allies because there are so many like them in the society. They join hands with these people and pledge to bring in the evil changes by dominating the political system after the radicalization process (Walters and Monaghan 2013). They are also of the opinion that the act of talking about their problems is not enough to end them. This is why they go on to take serious actions to end the miseries. Violence is not the proper way of tackling against injustice but they think the opposite way. They feel that violence is the best way to tackle against the injustice. They also have some friends or persons in the family who support their decisions. This is how they get success in being the terrors to mankind effectively.
The governments must make it sure that the persons who are involved in the terrorism must be punished hard. This is a very bad and cruel activity that harms the human beings. This is why the terrorism can be stopped (Archetti 2015). If the nations can set an example of punishing the terrorists very cruelly they perhaps will be able to set a big example before all the countries indeed. The people who are planning to launch some potential terrorist activities will learn a lesson. The 9/11 terrorist attacks had been a great shock to the world. Some important measures have been taken indeed to counter any further terrorist attacks (Keniston and Quinn 2013). These policies should be followed by the governments of other nations as well. The causes for spreading the violence in the society are many. This is why the terrorists have chosen this path to create an impact within a very short time. Multiple factors work behind this indeed. The reason behind the behavioral science of terrorist violence can be understood properly indeed if the proper analysis is done. The effects of terrorism cause the international harm indeed. There are some psychological theories that may be discussed in this context of terrorism (Archetti 2015).
Some people who are engaged in terrorism might have some personality disorder problems as well. They are extremely sensitive to their criticism. They are very much narcissistic. Their mood fluctuates a lot. They want to divide the world in two extreme halves of black and white (Archetti 2015).
It is another psychological trait that can be asserted to the terrorists. The fanatics are only concerned about the concerned about the religious things. They believe in two sects of people- believers and non-believers in religion (Freeman 2017). It can also be attributed as a mental illness. The terrorists can also be called as fanatics because they harm themselves in this process.
The process of radicalization
Several mental disorders lead the terrorists to commit such heinous acts indeed. Some critics have argued that the terrorists only know about creating wreckage in the world and destroying everything. The terrorist organizations are no more disorganized as before. This is why they take their steps with utmost care and attention. The fanatical and abnormal people cannot take these steps. This is why the terrorist organizations would not include such people in their organizations as well (Keniston and Quinn 2013).
The counter-terrorism activities have been increasing in the contemporary times after the recent terrorism activities indeed. The tube rail explosions have given rise to more consciousness and awareness in London indeed (Bures 2013). The city police is launching new campaigns to combat the situations properly. They have adopted some prevent strategies. The police is trying their best efforts to stop the people from involving in several acts of terrorism. The police is also influence the people from becoming an active part of the terrorist activities as they are working with the local communities in the country (Bures 2013). They are continuously trying to put in the practice of the cultural and social programs and make the people engage in these activities. This might eradicate the mentality of getting involved in the terrorist activities. The London police is setting up the awareness campaigns in the various places of worship, churches, schools, colleges, universities and community zones to spread the message of peace all over (Murphy 2012). This will be very much helpful for the police to strengthen the unity of the people in many ways. The message of hatred for terrorism will be spread all over the country by the London police indeed. There are certain theories that could be attributed to the act of terrorism. These theories are the instinct theory, drive theory, biological approaches, raw empirical approaches and many others. The cultural factors are indeed important in shaping up the mindset of the terrorists in many ways. The most infamous terrorist groups have only aimed at destroying the peace of the world. The critics have argued over this fact as well (Freeman 2017). The mass destruction weapons or the nuclear weapons are the strengths of almost every developed nation nowadays. The British and USA troops could launch the attacks on the militant tents every now and then. It is better that they should withdraw their means of destruction and come back to peaceful treaties.
Islamic state has been the other name of terror over the last decade. They have committed huge terror attacks all over the world indeed (Stern and Berger 2015). The terrorist activities they commit have completely wreaked havoc in all their target countries. USA has been their main targets along with the biggest countries in Europe. The political violence has been their main issue over the religious issues. There have been some geopolitical compulsions in the politics of the Middle East (Stern and Berger 2015). Apart from that the Islamic State activities have risen in that region regarding the split between the Shia and Sunni Muslims. The democracy system has failed in those regions and the main purpose is to establish the political supremacy indeed. As the US troops were withdrawn from Iraq, the birth of the Islamic State took place. This is supposed to be a Sunni militant organization. They had not been that much independent till 2013 as they had to work under the banner of Al Qaeda (McCants and McCants 2015). ISIS has been successful in getting the attention of the foreign rebellions. They have successfully made the campaigns to talk about their motives to the people who think in their way. As critics have stated the Islamic State has become one of the most terrifying militant organizations in the world. McCants and McCants (2015), have also said that the rise of the Islamic State can be pointed as the increase in the militant activities all over the world. The terrorism activists have again come into the limelight with the help of the Islamic State militants.
Terrorism is not a profession. As argued by Crenshaw, it is an evil state of mind or revealing of the frustration or anger by which some people destroy their lives along with others as well (Bruce 2013). The aspect of terrorism is not just a syndrome of mind. This is completely a psychological and sociological frame of mind indeed. The behavior of the persons largely depends on the environment in which a person lives (Bruce 2013). This is also entirely influenced by the political ambience as well. The psychological responses depend on the social settings of that place. Inter and intra-group atmosphere of the terrorists provide the sociological interpretations of the terrorist activities. The social and psychological determination of the people can be widely given a chance to succumb to the seemingly prospects of engaging in the terrorist activities. Crenshaw has also argued about the fact the present in terrorism should be considered as one of the most important cases to save mankind from insanity of evil.
However, these terrorists are aware of the fact that they cannot go back to the normal life again after they are engaged in this; they still cannot resist themselves (Masten and Narayan 2012). The social interactions between the terrorist groups can be infectious as the people are very much susceptible to involve in the unknown adventures. The minorities are the victims of getting involved in the terrorist activities because they suffer from an uncertainty of mind indeed. Their mindset works in a way that they want to get their revenge on the majority of the society by smashing their ideologies. Their set of beliefs turns to be very much violent in many cases. The less socialization process makes their mind poisonous and they get engaged in these evil activities (Heywood 2017).
Terrorism is largely a matter which is influenced by the political ideologies in different countries. Some of the most infamous terrorist groups are the Al Qaeda, Hizbul Mujahidin, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria and may others (Heywood 2017).They use the religious reasons as the camouflage. Their main intention is to gain the political benefits from the target countries. One major perspective in this political thing is the fact that the most important forces in the world are controlling the entire thing.
They set up these terrorist groups just to utilize their chances of dominance indeed. Political ideologies are external forces and the people are largely influenced by these things indeed. They always want to keep some pressure on the governments of the powerful countries. They are aware if they make explosions at public places, hijack planes, engage in mass killing in concerts will keep the society in terror and the governments will be compelled to pay the terrorists a huge amount of sum. This will establish a huge influence on the people (Heywood 2017).
The measures for counter-terrorism have a big effect on the extremism in the western countries. The United States has launched many programs which will be very much appropriate for countering the terrorist activities in all the regions. The biggest victims of extremism are the Muslims and the people of the racial populations (Mythen, Walklate and Khan 2013). The victims are caught in the counter-terror operations and they have been rehabilitated properly indeed. The suspects of terror are getting identified properly by a vast process. The Prevent Policy of the British Government will look to stop the terrorism activities indeed. This will be very much effective indeed. The practice of racism can be taken as a huge element in the matter of counter-terrorism. The states have to keep a strong surveillance on the movements of the prime suspects. It is the duty of the police forces. They can complete their missions with the defense forces in order to get the best results indeed. (Mythen, Walklate and Khan 2013). According to Mythen, Walklate and Khan (2013), the surveillance and counter terrorism has to be given much importance because it is the only way to prevent the terrorism. The racist issues can also come into focus in describing the terrorist activities. In confronting Mythen, Walklate and Khan (2013), others have opined that the terrorists do not target any particular section but they destroy their targets with a calm head.
The powerful countries will go on to put much effort on the legislative things that are related to terrorism (Richards 2014). The nations should always bring into action some emergency legislative policies that could ban the militant groups from the countries. The terrorist activities could be controlled with the activation of these new legislations. The most common and strong purpose is the prevention of terrorism (Pokalova 2015). The anti-terrorist activities could be launched and extreme actions should be taken by the countries in order to stop the activities of these terrorists. The proper legislative policies should be laid out to give more power to the security agencies. The security agencies should have the power to arrest the terrorists and take extreme actions if they found any evidence. These are the ways legislation could help the nations to conquer terrorist (Pokalova 2015). As Pokalova (2015) has described, the legislative powers should be made effective in many ways to confront the barriers of terrorism. Their activities can be stopped with the help of strict punishment.
The term war on terror came into existence after the attacks of 9/11. The entire world had been shocked by this attack. The extremists are always on the favor of causing havoc in the lands and utter destruction brings them happiness (Newman 2012). This is why the countries go on to take serious steps on the policies of stop the wars. The wars against Afghanistan and Iraq in the recent times by USA are the examples of the war on terror. However, USA has been the pioneering country in fighting against terrorism all over the world. They have been supplying the troops that are required to combat against terrorism (Newman 2012). This is why the killing of Osama Bin Laden and Saddam Hussein can be considered as two major successes. Some relevant notions have come up in this scenario. One important thing is the fact that the tag of terrorists have come up against the Muslims only. This is why only the Muslims are considered to be the terrorists (Freeman 2017). The power of United States has been a menacing fact indeed because more than 3000 people had been killed because of these wars. A section of the world population got fierce over the United States. They were so much angry on USA that they found only one way show their anger and i.e. terrorism (Kundnani 2014). In this context it can be viewed by Freeman (2017) that the Muslims are seen as the only religious sect who is always keen on spreading the terrorism. The critics have also spotted the examples of the Christian terrorism in some areas of Latin America and the terrorism in the earlier civilizations by the British Empire, as it can be seen.
The states should always take some important steps to fight against the terrorism. The security of the human rights is very important for the people of the states. The civilians are the ones who get affected by the attacks of the terrorists (Kohalmi 2016). Extreme corruption can lead to the terrorist mentality of the people. The social and political crimes can be taken as very important criminal activities that could lead to the terrorism (Sides and Gross 2013). The human rights organizations must secure all the security of the civilians very effectively. Otherwise they will be in great distress indeed (Freeman 2017) The psychological aspects of the terrorists have to be traced properly. This will surely increase the chances of bringing them back to the normal life. The legal issues will have to be dealt with very firmly in order to bring back the absconding terrorists and give them the proper punishments (Sides and Gross 2013). The criticism by Jeff Victoroff will also be important in the case that he feels that human nature has been the same and the inner nature of terrorism has always been in the nature of the people. He also believes that human behavior will be very important to judge the activity of the terrorists and their interests at large. There are multiple driving forces of terrorism. This term indeed is very much complex and many complex ways could be used to define this term. The strategies the terrorists take depend on the environment they are brought up. Sides and Gross (2013) have argued that the absconding terrorists should be punished very strictly in order to stop the other terrorists. These examples will be proper enough to teach the terrorists a big lesson.
History of terrorism is teaching many things to the present society. One of the valuable lessons is that the people who employ terrorism and those who are affected by it are potential enough of holding a large number of ambiguous and incongruous views regarding the nature of political violence and terrorism (O’brien 2015). It is very vital to acknowledge the consequence of this for the better understanding of the terrorism especially if there is a need to know more on the psychological perspectives on the subject of terrorism. The strategy of terrorism is trashed with paradoxes (Wald 2014). The terrorist pursue to establish a confined audience by the generation of dreadful deeds and simultaneously building the barriers in between themselves and their purposive audience as a result of what they have just done. Same kind of paradoxes is also found in the works of those who are given with the task of responding to the terrorists. It is known to all that various responses to terrorism may increase thee support for the terrorists as well and still people find it absurd and inhuman to withstand engaging in the terrorists in the ways that are different from the ones that are assumed to be deserving of the actions of cowards.
When it comes to the question of identifying the root cause of terrorism, poverty and lack of education are the first to come in the mind. Poor and uneducated people are more likely to get lure with the promises of luxury and heaven and are easily convinced to shatter other people in order to attain it. However, many researchers conducted thereafter have found that among the group of terrorists, three-quarters of the total belongs either from middle class or upper class. Even 90% of them belong to caring and intact families. In fact Brockhoff, Krieger and Meierrieks (2015) have found that education is much valued in the market of terrorism as better educated people are more likely to take the terrorism attain success. They are more likely to carry out successful terrorist attacks and have lesser chances of getting caught. Terrorists such as Mohammad Atta, Noordin MTop and Azahari do not fit in the profile of un educated and poor, yet they are widely known for the violence that they have created. According to Coccia (2017,) the root cause of terrorism is the deprivation of the rights. However, Bernholz (2017) has suggested that the root cause of terrorism is totalitarianism. It is the only regime can indoctrinate the troop of killers in order to suspend all the moral constraints for a twisted reason. Right from Hitler to Osama bin Laden, totalitarianisms have always been linked to terrorism.
According to Dhami and Murray (2016), the people who believe that there is difference between the terrorists and themselves might be aware of what they discover in psycho-social investigation. Through the comprehensive histories of the people who stripped of their identity, land or their independence from the government with the self-serving ideas of justice, they maps the emergence of the mindsets of terrorists that prove neither as psychotic nor as foreign as their actions seems to appear. It has also been argued by Victoroff that the minds of the terrorists are very much cruel as this is a part of the human nature at large. They are very perceptive and objective while exploring the three types of existing terrorism and they are social revolutionary, national separatist and religious extremists. Researchers have also shown that some of the terrorists have criminal mentality and they had earlier lived their life as criminals. Contradictory, the anxiety regarding death plays a very important role in persuade of suicide bombers and terrorists. Ervin Staub has further identified the three types of terrorists and they are lost souls, respondents and idealists. Furthermore, the psychologists have also identified that when people are in groups, they tend to make more risky decisions as the risk is seen as shared and hence is less frightening.
According to Viano (2014), terrorist group is the tip of a pyramid of sympathizers and supporters. The base of that pyramid consists of the people who sympathize with terrorist even though they may not accept or disagree with their violent means of actions. For example, in the current era, the base of the terrorist pyramid in Northern Ireland constitutes of the people who agree with the ‘Brits Out’. Similarly, in Islamic world, the base constitutes of the people who agree with the belief that the US has been humiliating and hurting the Muslims from decades. This pyramid is helping the terrorists in recruits and to cover them by supporting them. Terrorists think that an over-generalized drive against them will hit most of their own side, consisting the people who are not yet mobilized and radicalized. This will in turn expand their base of support and sympathy. However, it is mistake to directly label the terrorists as psychologically deranged or evil. The psychologists in fact have found that the terrorists incline to be non paranoid and stable individuals (Soldatov 2017). The thing that makes the terrorists different from the rest is their potential to “switch off” their empathy in the service to their goals and beliefs. It is noticeable that most of the terrorists are generally young men or adolescents. Adolescence is a period in which the children become aware of themselves as a different individual and that too with a sense of fragility and vulnerability (Ford 2017). Hence, there is a strong requirement for identity, selfhood and belonging. Therefore, the adolescents often tend to join the gangs and become the followers of pop songs or of fashion. Belonging from a particular group helps them to strengthen their identity and ease their sense of distinctness.
In this section, I will highlight some issues that will be very important to address the important issues. I believe that no person is a born terrorist. The circumstances and surrounding environments force him to be so. This is why they would be highly susceptible to the situations. I think the environment should be improved in order to make the people understand terrorism is not the way to reveal the anger and frustration in them. I strongly feel the situation can be improved in many ways indeed. The psychology of the terrorists should be understood by the expert psychologists. They should make more researches in this context. This will open the gates for making developments in the society. As the terrorist groups often target the hierarchical organizations and the powerful governments, it is very important the psychologists to arrange for proper counseling and get them place in the society indeed. The psychological barriers should be withdrawn and all the people in the society should be seen as the same indeed. All the facilities should be available to them so they can drop their guns and join the civilized society.
Conclusion
This paper can be concluded by saying that terrorism has created a huge impact in the entire world. The unfortunate thing in this context is the fact that the impact is completely negative. The terrorist activities have to be controlled in all the countries to secure the civilians all over. The mindset of the people has to be traced to stop becoming them the terrorists. The psychological factors are very important in this case because the young people who have the tendency to become the terrorists should be jotted down by the governments of the various states. The war on terror is a big factor in understanding the psychology of the terrorists. The national governments should also take some serious steps to stop the people from becoming the terrorists. These are the reasons as to why the people should not become the victims of becoming the terrorists. This will be very much effective in the shaping the security of the nations properly. Thus the nations can be secured by the implementation of the certain legislative policies indeed.
References
Archetti, C., 2015. Terrorism, communication and new media: Explaining radicalization in the digital age. Perspectives on Terrorism, 9(1).
Bernholz, P., 2017. Totalitarianism, Terrorism and Supreme Values. Springer.
Brockhoff, S., Krieger, T. and Meierrieks, D., 2015. Great expectations and hard times: The (nontrivial) impact of education on domestic terrorism. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 59(7), pp.1186-1215.
Bruce, G., 2013. Definition of terrorism social and political effects. Journal of Military and Veterans Health, 21(2), p.26.
Bures, O., 2013. EU counterterrorism policy: a paper tiger?. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd..
Carlton, D. and Schaerf, C. eds., 2015. International terrorism and world security (Vol. 3). Routledge.
Combs, C.C., 2017. Terrorism in the twenty-first century. Routledge.
Coppock, V. and McGovern, M., 2014. ‘Dangerous Minds’? Deconstructing Counter?Terrorism Discourse, Radicalisation and the ‘Psychological Vulnerability’of Muslim Children and Young People in Britain. Children & Society, 28(3), pp.242-256.
Dhami, M.K. and Murray, J., 2016. Male youth perceptions of violent extremism: towards a test of rational choice theory. The Spanish journal of psychology, 19.
Ford, P., 2017. Children, Adolescents, and Catastrophic Loss: The Role of Spiritual Care. Children, Adolescents, and Death: Questions and Answers, p.133.
Gerhards, J. and Schäfer, M.S., 2014. International terrorism, domestic coverage? How terrorist attacks are presented in the news of CNN, Al Jazeera, the BBC, and ARD. International Communication Gazette, 76(1), pp.3-26.
Ghatak, S., 2014. Challenging the State: Evaluating the Effects of Uneven Distribution of Public Goods, Economic Globalization and Political Openness on Domestic Terrorism.
Hanes, E. and Machin, S., 2014. Hate crime in the wake of terror attacks: Evidence from 7/7 and 9/11. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30(3), pp.247-267.
Heath?Kelly, C., 2013. Counter?Terrorism and the Counterfactual: Producing the ‘Radicalisation’Discourse and the UK PREVENT Strategy. The British Journal of Politics & International Relations, 15(3), pp.394-415.
Heywood, A., 2017. Political ideologies: An introduction. Palgrave Macmillan.
Hiro, D., 2014. War without end: the rise of Islamist terrorism and global response. Routledge.
Jongman, A.J., 2017. Political terrorism: A new guide to actors, authors, concepts, data bases, theories, and literature. Routledge.
Keniston, A. and Quinn, J.F. eds., 2013. Literature After 9/11(Vol. 1). Routledge.
Kohalmi, L., 2016. Terrorism and Human Rights. JE-Eur. Crim. L., p.159.
Kundnani, A., 2014. The Muslims are coming!: Islamophobia, extremism, and the domestic war on terror. Verso Books.
LaFree, G., Dugan, L. and Miller, E., 2014. Putting terrorism in context: Lessons from the Global Terrorism Database. Routledge.
Masten, A.S. and Narayan, A.J., 2012. Child development in the context of disaster, war, and terrorism: Pathways of risk and resilience. Annual review of psychology, 63.
McCants, W. and McCants, W.F., 2015. The ISIS apocalypse: The history, strategy, and doomsday vision of the Islamic State. Macmillan.
Murphy, C.C., 2012. EU Counter-terrorism Law: Pre-emption and the Rule of Law. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Mythen, G., Walklate, S. and Khan, F., 2013. ‘Why should we have to prove we’re alright?’: Counter-terrorism, risk and partial securities. Sociology, 47(2), pp.383-398.
Newman, S., 2012. War on Terror. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization.
O’brien, C.C., 2015. Herod: reflections on political violence. Faber & Faber.
Pokalova, E., 2015. Legislative Responses to Terrorism: What Drives States to Adopt New Counterterrorism Legislation?. Terrorism and Political Violence, 27(3), pp.474-496.
Richards, A., 2014. Conceptualizing terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 37(3), pp.213-236.
Sides, J. and Gross, K., 2013. Stereotypes of Muslims and Support for the War on Terror. The Journal of Politics, 75(3), pp.583-598.
Soldatov, A., 2017. All-Encompassing Paranoia: How the Attitude Toward Security Has Changed in Russia. Russian Social Science Review, 58(1), pp.60-68.
Stern, J. and Berger, J.M., 2015. ISIS: The state of terror. HarperCollins.
Viano, E.C., 2014. Investigating and Preventing Terrorism in Multicultural Urban Settings: Is a Balanced Approach Possible?. Countering Radicalisation and Violent Extremism Among Youth to Prevent Terrorism, 118, p.1.
Wald, A., 2014. Cold War University: Madison and the New Left in the Sixties by Matthew Levin. Journal for the Study of Radicalism, 8(2), pp.119-121.
Walters, T. and Monaghan, R. eds., 2013. Radicalization, Terrorism, and Conflict. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:
Turnitin Report
Formatting
Title Page
Citation
Outline
