Communicable disease threat – HIV
The essay brings about the discussion on the literature review of the one of the common emerging communicable disease threats, and the related aspects. Communicable diseases refer to the infectious disease which is transmissible from one person to another by any direct contact with the infected person, or through any indirect means. The indirect means of transfer of disease can be through the discharge of the infected individual. There are some of the common communicable diseases prevalent, such as Ebola, CRE, Flu, Hantavirus, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, and HIV/AIDS. The medium through which these communicable diseases spread depends upon the nature or the type of disease and the infectious agents involved in the transmission of the disease (World Health Organisation, 2018).
For the purpose of the description of the communicable disease threat, HIV has been chosen in this essay, and the aspects related will be included thereon. Thus, the essay will include a description of the communicable disease, from varied, or multiple sources. There will be also a discussion of the role of the agents, host, and the environmental factors affecting or causing the occurrence of the disease to a human being. The potential policy or the response to the widespread communicable disease is one of the important areas of discussion in this essay.
To discuss about the communicable disease treat, HIV it has been found that epidemic disease in the beginning caused infection to people around 70 million people and 35 million have died. HIV/AIDS refers to the spectrum of the health condition which is caused by the infection from the Human Immunodeficiency virus. It refers to the communicable disease which is caused due to human immunodeficiency virus, leading to damage to the body’s immune system; the system which fights with the infections. It has been analysed that HIV is the emerging and the fastest growing threat to the development of society around the world. As there has been increase in the progression and the prevalence of the disease, thus the factors or the effects are increasing too. Several research studies has demonstrated that people found infected or positive with HIV, have oral fungal, bacterial and viral infections, which often occurs in the initial period of the disease (Platt et al., 2016).
To discuss about the signs and symptoms of the HIV disease, it has been discovered, that HIV infection has three main stages, acute infection, clinical latency, and AIDS. Acute infection is the initial period which follows the contraction, which is known as acute HIV or primary HIV or acute retroviral syndrome. These symptoms include fever, rashes, headaches, throat inflammation, tiredness, and the sores of mouth and genitals. The other symptoms may also include diarrhoea, and other neurological symptoms. In the next level or stage, the symptoms include weight loss, and the muscle pains. In the third stage of AIDS, there is an increased risk of developing numerous viral induced cancers. In this stage, it has been found that the people with AIDS have systemic symptoms that includes, prolonged fevers, sweat especially during night. The other symptoms may include swollen lymph nodes, weight loss, and the persistent weakness in the body (Bhatti, Usman & Kandi, 2016).
Prevalence and global burden
HIV positive is mainly found with those, one who have had unprotected sex, with an infected partner, having oral sex even though the risk from the oral sex is considered low. The other factors causing HIV includes, sharing of the drug needles with an infected person by HIV infection, in which the virus passes on from an expectant mother to her child, during or before the birth, or it may occur due to the blood transfusion of infected blood.
The diagram below describes about the prevalence and the global burden of the HIV infection. It represents the statistics of HIV/AIDS in various regions of the economy. HIV/AIDS globally, are found to be the 5th leading cause for the disability in the lives of people in the parts of Africa and the Caribbean.
(Source: School of Public Health, 2016)
HIV as a communicable disease has a higher prevalence in context to various countries or communities which poses an impact on the people, especially older aged people. According to Mokgele, (2014) has discussed about the HIV/AIDS in a manner which describes the impact of the communicable disease on elderly, into the Sub-Saharan African community. The authors states that human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immune deficiency syndrome are found to be the greatest pandemic in the African community. The virus and the syndrome has widely influenced and changed the role of the elder people in the community. It has been found that around 22 million people, both children and adults are living with this communicable disease. The reports from the analysis on the sub-Saharan community, has evidenced that HIV is prevalent more with the older-aged people (Lekalakala-Mokgele, 2014).
Discussing about the prevalence, it has been found that the Sub-Saharan Africa has been found with highest HIV prevalence worldwide. These communicable diseases have been emerged and re-emerged as major infections. The high risk of progression for HIV, is that HIV-positive: >5mm = positive, and from the perspective of endemic countries: >10 mm is positive. Studies in the article from the perspective of authors have revealed the fact that HIV/AIDS have influenced majorly to the most reproductive and economically active section of the African community. It changed the composition of the family by decimating the young adult population, leading on to the increased number of elderly family headed and child-headed families. The increase in the disease infection in elderly has been stated that they engage in the activities which increase the risks for HIV infection. Elderly people in those communities are found to be engaged in the sexual activities frequently with the younger people. This is turn increases the costs of care for the elderly people in the community, also home-based care for the elderly people in these diseases is considered most effective. Thus the authors has discussed well about the causes for the occurrence or spread of the infection of HIV in respect to the sub-Saharan community (Hall et al., 2015).
Impact on elderly people in the community
Retrovirus is the agent in HIV (Human Immunodeficiency virus), disease infection is which causes acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), infects and destroys, CD4+ cells of the human body. Due to this, the infection caused due to virus, limits host immune responses, leading to infected patients, collapsing into opportunistic infections by any other organisms. Host are the important factors as they play a vital role in determining the rates of progression of the disease in the HIV infected individuals. In respect to this communicable widespread disease like HIV, host is the person or the organism, which is capable of being infected by a particular agent. Stating about the agent, it is referred to as the entity or micro-organism, (virus or any bacteria) which is responsible for the occurrence of the disease. Retrovirus is the agent which is necessary to be present for the occurrence of HIV infection to the host or individual (Royo & Real, 2018).
Therefore, it is essential at first, that the agent must be present for the occurrence of the disease. Describing environment, in relation to the epidemic like HIV, it refers to all the things external to the host. The environmental factors are extrinsic, which affect the agent, and the opportunity for the exposure. The physical factors include climate, biological factors insects and other organisms, and the socio-economic factors, such as sanitation and access to health services (Liu et al., 2016).
According to Talman, Bolton & Walson, (2013) it has been discussed that HIV/AIDS is the epidemic which has been studied through social, economic, and political dimensions. The authors have stated that in the regions of the world which is prone to HIV, the rates of disease have been continuously increasing, due to massive environmental and societal changes. The change in the global climate, human industries, and the shifting patterns of migration due to poverty, inequality, and conflict are certain factors which influence HIV. It has been found that the people with the rural livelihood are the most affected ones. Rural livelihood is dependent on resources, technology, knowledge, health, and access to education has been influenced due to this pandemic. People are unable to acquire or have access to these basic amenities of life, due to these diseases. It affects their economic or financial condition, and creates burden on them, which further affects their education, hampering the quality of life (Sudlow et al., 2015).
As poverty denies a person the access of education, medicinal facilities, which are the factors that affect the occurrence and treatment of such epidemic diseases. Migration or the climatic factors, as the extreme changes in the climatic conditions, sea-level rise, natural calamities, and deteriorating agricultural productivity, affect the HIV/AIDS. As it has been found that the large-scale migration is likely to increase the occurrence of the HIV disease. Other environmental factors such as water, sanitation facilities, and livelihood insecurity are also some of the crucial environmental factors, affecting HIV. For an instance, it is known fact that food insecurity is a linchpin between the HIV and the environment. Therefore, it is clearly understood that the individuals who are under-nourished are found to be more susceptible to HIV infection. Another example can be of gender inequality as it places girls at a higher risk for the HIV infection. However, the most important and common aspect of the relationship of other environmental factors with HIV, is the consumer’s perspective. Adequate access to the safe water and sanitation facilities is dispensable for the people living with HIV. NAPWA (National Association of People living with HIV/AIDS) operates with an objective to mobilise and facilitate care and support to the infected people. Thus, a more holistic approach in fighting with the HIV/AIDS is to ensure that the people have access to the basic nutrition, sound health care facilities, and the proper living conditions, to help prevent the occurrence of such diseases (Schwartz et al., 2015).
Role of agents, hosts, and environmental factors
The causes or the reasons behind the occurrence of the communicable disease, such as HIV are also known as the transmission factors leading to poor health and wellbeing of the person. The communicable infectious disease, such as HIV is spread through certain ways, including sexual contact, exposure to the infected body fluid, or the tissues. The fluids such as, blood (menstrual blood), semen/cum/ precum /ejaculate, vaginal secretions, and breast milk. From the above bodily fluids, it is known that the highest concentration of the virus is present in the blood, followed by semen, which is further followed by vaginal fluids, and then leading on to breast milk. The HIV transmission from mother to the child takes place during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding this is termed as vertical transmission. Amongst all the methods or mediums of transmission, it has been found that sexual contact or sexual intercourse is the one of the most common medium, between the people of opposite sex (Hatcher et al., 2016).
One of the ways used is the vaccination given to the people to prevent the occurrence or spread/transmission of HIV, from one person to other. At present there is no such vaccine licensed for the disease like HIV, but the most effective vaccine which has been tried till date is the RV144. The vaccine was introduced in the year 2009, but it has led to the partial reduction of the risk of transmission nearly around 30% (Haynes & Burton, 2017).
Mother-to-child transmission of HIV is also referred as perinatal transmission of HIV. A few cases where the transmission rates of HIV infection are found to be low, such as when the HIV is detected early, in the case of women, during pregnancy or even before pregnancy period. Giving HIV medicines to both, the child as well as the women, is the other method to prevent the transmission from mother-to-child. To discuss the prevention of the infection transmission from mother to the child, it includes several programmes; anti-retroviral treatment to the HIV- positive pregnant women, preventing the infants from acquiring HIV virus. The prevention of HIV transmission from the mother to the child can be done in a way if the mother takes the medicines of HIV, during the period of pregnancy and child-birth. If the baby after the birth is given HIV medicine, then the risk or possibilities of HIV infection get reduced to 2% or lesser in some cases (Aids Info, 2018).
Potential policy responses
According to the Ishikawa et al., (2016), there has been a discussion or the study conducted in Cuba and Thailand. A global guidance has been issued by WHO, based on the criteria and processes of validation. The criteria have been set in order to eliminate the mother to child transmission of the HIV infection. Antenatal screening and treatment is the method which can resolve the problem of infection. Cuba is the first country to receive the validation from WHO to eliminate the infection transmission from the mother-to-child. The initiative to prevent the disease infection from the mother to child, the country focused on voluntary testing, equality, and non-discrimination. Several treatment programs were also conducted in Thailand, and the mothers in the country found infected with HIV, and their exposed infants, are followed up and provided with the health facilities, to improve their health condition. In both the countries, the infants are also monitored for the infection, transmitted from their mother, which further followed the procedure of testing, diagnosis, and proper treatment to them using different therapies and medicines (Cohn et al., 2016).
Discussing about the treatment of HIV infection, it has been found that there is no best treatment for HIV. Thus, the treatment consists of the highly active retroviral therapy (HAART), that helps in reducing the rate of progression of the disease. From the year 2010, more than 6.6 million people are found to be treated with this therapy mainly in the low and middle-income countries. The treatment methods of HIV also constitute of preventive and active treatment of opportunistic infections to the individuals. It has been analysed that ART (Antiretroviral therapy), is recommended to all the HIV-infected individuals, after they are diagnosed (van Heerden et al., 2017).
An antiretroviral drug reduces the transmission of the HIV through sexual contact, between the individuals. If the drug is used consistently as pre-exposure prophylaxis, by those who are not prone or infected by HIV, then the possibility of the infection amongst those individuals reduces. Further, in the case, where an individual is found infected by HIV, the use of antiretroviral drugs reduces the risk of the onward transmission. It is useful in such cases also, where the sexual intercourse has been taken place without protection or ‘without the use of condom’, and for the population which is repeatedly tested for HIV. The initiative of ART therapy or drugs in all these cases proves to minimise the risk up-to a major extent (Kay, Batey & Mugavero, 2016).
Arts & Hazuda, (2012) discussed about the aspects and effect of Anti-retroviral therapy or drugs used for the HIV infection. The authors has described that the most advanced treatment in the medical management of HIV-1 infection has been the implementation of the ART therapy or drugs. Through the research study of these authors, it has been analysed that HIV-1 acts as the causative agent, leading to AIDS. ART began more than 20years ago, which was licensed as the first pharmaceutical agent for treating the HIV-1 infection. A total of 25-different anti-HIV-1 drugs from the six varied classes are available, and these agents used in a combined manner, has resulted into reduced morbidity and mortality associated with the disease. It has been found that HAART can supress the replications for decades, by the proper and effective adhere, which can increase the life expectancy of the HIV infected individuals (Günthard et al., 2016).
The therapy i.e. HAART cannot alone eliminate HIV-1 infection; as it is a chronic condition for which there is no established cure or treatment. Thus, the authors in their study has mentioned about the negative aspects of the antiretroviral therapy, such as the loss of appetite, fatigue, high cholesterol, changes in the mood, nausea and vomiting. In the United States, it has been found that HIV was the leading cause of deaths in the people aged 25-44 years, in the past years. It has been stated that the 35% of the deaths are found to be caused due to HIV only. Like other drug therapies, it has been analysed that the antiretroviral therapy also faced resistance by the individual patients, failing therapies including those patients who are found affected by these transmitted, drug resistant viruses. Therefore, resistance testing is recommended to be used before the initiation of the HAART in the therapy naïve patients, and even after the failure of the treatment (Cohen et al., 2016).
The potential policy response in context to the increasing communicable diseases like HIV/AIDS includes the aspects of the government obligations, which states about the human rights. These rights include the right to the protection of public health as it relates to the policies and programmes designed to enhance health condition of the individuals infected with HIV. According to Nunn et al., (2013) discussed about the policy responses of two different countries, Brazil and South Africa. The two countries have different responses to the acquired Immunodeficiency virus, and amongst these Brazil is considered as the model for the policy response to the HIV/AIDS. The country has implemented several numerous programmes, and offered anti-retroviral treatment to the people living with AIDS (Oramasionwu et al., 2011).
From the research conducted, it has been analysed that due to the differences in the responses to the policies formulated in these two countries, the epidemic has been evolved over years. It has been studied and analysed from the study, that structural factors, which includes politically salient ethnic divisions in South Africa are the determinants of these policy response differences between both the countries. The Treatment Action Campaign was founded back in the year 1998, in the country which aimed at enhancing the public policy response to AIDS. In addition, several other factors, such as the availability of the financial resources to the programmes conducted for the people living with HIV, had a great influence on the policy makers, and different policy responses in South Africa and Brazil (Klein & Flanagan, 2016).
To conclude the above discussion it has been analysed that the Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/AIDS, infectious disease has been wide-spread which has caused negative impacts in resource limited settings. HIV is the life-long health condition, which influences the health and wellbeing of an individual. The disease must be prevented on an individual level also, along with the medicinal care. Thus, the above essay presented the causes, signs, symptoms, prevention and the treatment of HIV infection preventing leading to AIDS in the later stage, causing threat to the lives of individuals.
References
Aids Info. (2018) Preventing Mother-to-child Transmission of HIV. Retrieved from: https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv-aids/fact-sheets/20/50/preventing-mother-to-child-transmission-of-hiv
Arts, E. J. & Hazuda, D. J. (2012) HIV-1 Antiretroviral Drug Therapy. Cold Spring Habor Perspectives in Medicine, 2(4), 1761.
Bhatti, A. B., Usman, M. & Kandi, V. (2016). Current scenario of HIV/AIDS, treatment options, and major challenges with compliance to antiretroviral therapy. Cureus, 8(3), 515.
Cohen, M. S., Chen, Y. Q., McCauley, M., Gamble, T., Hosseinipour, M. C., Kumarasamy, N. & Godbole, S. V. (2016). Antiretroviral therapy for the prevention of HIV-1 transmission. New England Journal of Medicine, 375(9), 830-839.
Cohn, J., Whitehouse, K., Tuttle, J., Lueck, K. & Tran, T. (2016). Paediatric HIV testing beyond the context of prevention of mother-to-child transmission: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet HIV, 3(10), 473-481.
Günthard, H. F., Saag, M. S., Benson, C. A., Del Rio, C., Eron, J. J., Gallant, J. E., … & Gandhi, R. T. (2016). Antiretroviral drugs for treatment and prevention of HIV infection in adults: 2016 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society–USA panel. Jama, 316(2), 191-210.
Hall, H. I., An, Q., Tang, T., Song, R., Chen, M., Green, T. & Kang, J. (2015). Prevalence of Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV Infection–United States, 2008-2012. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 64(24), 657-662.
Hatcher, A. M., Stöckl, H., Christofides, N., Woollett, N., Pallitto, C. C., Garcia-Moreno, C.,& Turan, J. M. (2016). Mechanisms linking intimate partner violence and prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV: a qualitative study in South Africa. Social Science & Medicine, 168, 130-139.
Haynes, B. F. & Burton, D. R. (2017). Developing an HIV vaccine. Science, 355(6330), 1129-1130.
Ishikawa, N., Newman, L., Taylor, M., Essajee, S., Pendse, R. & Ghidinelli, M. (2016). Elimination of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and syphilis in Cuba and Thailand. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 94(11), 787.
Kay, E. S., Batey, D. S. & Mugavero, M. J. (2016). The HIV treatment cascade and care continuum: updates, goals, and recommendations for the future. AIDS research and therapy, 13(1), 35.Klein, S. L. & Flanagan, K. L. (2016). Sex differences in immune responses. Nature Reviews Immunology, 16(10), 626.Lekalakala-Mokgele, E. (2014). Understanding of the risk of HIV infection among the elderly in Ga-Rankuwa, South Africa. SAHARA-J, 11(1), 67-75.
Lekalakala-Mokgele,E. (2011) ‘A literature review of the impact of HIV and AIDS on the role of the elderly in the sub-Saharan African Community’, Health SA Gesondheid 16(1), 564.
Liu, A. Y., Cohen, S. E., Vittinghoff, E., Anderson, P. L., Doblecki-Lewis, S., Bacon, O. & Liegler, T. (2016). Pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV infection integrated with municipal-and community-based sexual health services. JAMA internal medicine, 176(1), 75-84.
Nunn, A., Dickman, S., Nattrass, N., Cornwall, A. & Gruskin, S. (2013). The impacts of AIDS movements on the policy responses to HIV/AIDS in Brazil and South Africa: A comparative analysis. Global Public Health, 7(10), 1031-1044.Oramasionwu, C. U., Matthew, K. R., Labreche, J. M. & Frei C. R. (2011). The Environmental and Social Influences of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Focus on Rural Communities, Environmental Research, and Public Health, 8(7), 2967-2979.Platt, L., Easterbrook, P., Gower, E., McDonald, B., Sabin, K., McGowan, C. & Vickerman, P. (2016). Prevalence and burden of HCV co-infection in people living with HIV: a global systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet infectious diseases, 16(7), 797-808.
Royo, J. L. & Real, L. M. (2018). Genetic Association Studies in Host–Pathogen Interaction Analysis. In Host-Pathogen Interactions (pp. 1-11). New York: Humana Press.
School of Public health. (2016). The Global burden of HIV/AIDS. Retrieved from: https://www.bu.edu/sph/2016/11/27/the-global-burden-of-hivaids/
Schwartz, S. R., Nowak, R. G., Orazulike, I., Keshinro, B., Ake, J., Kennedy, S. & TRUST Study Group. (2015). The immediate effect of the Same-Sex Marriage Prohibition Act on stigma, discrimination, and engagement on HIV prevention and treatment services in men who have sex with men in Nigeria: analysis of prospective data from the TRUST cohort. The Lancet HIV, 2(7), e299-e306.Sudlow, C., Gallacher, J., Allen, N., Beral, V., Burton, P., Danesh, J. & Liu, B. (2015). UK biobank: an open access resource for identifying the causes of a wide range of complex diseases of middle and old age. PLoS medicine, 12(3), 1001779.Talman, A., Bolton, S. & Walson, J. (2013). Interactions between HIV/AIDS and the environment: toward a syndemic framework, American Journal of Health, 103(2), 253-261.
van Heerden, A., Barnabas, R. V., Norris, S. A., Micklesfield, L. K., van Rooyen, H., & Celum, C. (2017). High prevalence of HIV and non?communicable disease (NCD) risk factors in rural KwaZulu?Natal, South Africa. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 20(2), 25012.
World Health Organisation. (2018). Oral health and communicable diseases. Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/oral_health/action/communicable/en
Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:
Turnitin Report
Formatting
Title Page
Citation
Outline
