Literature Review
Critically discuss aspects in the case study organisation such as the KM tools and KM techniques, KM models and KM processes, organisational learning and learning organisation, knowledge sharing and trust, communities of practice, applying knowledge for innovation, new knowledge creation, KM and organisational culture, KM governance, and organisational memory. Discuss the outcomes of the implementation and compare this against the KM aspects that have been discussed in the lectures.
Due to the rapid expansion of international integration of business activities, the need for learning the appropriate methods of knowledge transfer and its process has become significant as compared to past. Behind all these changes exist the globalization taking place in industries, which also place massive pressure on the organization for adapting the international strategies. As per Choi and Johanson (2012), there are four vital organizational principles within organization management, which work as a coordinated network. Along with this, resources should also flow within the company. Thirdly, there is an ongoing drive towards the minimization and standardization of unrequired duplication (Choi and Johanson, 2012). Fourthly, the domestic response also acts as a balanced with international responsibility, to produce the best outcome for the companies. In all this, this aims towards homogenization, standardization, coordination as well as concentration on the global basis and needs to have active knowledge management around the borders.
Previous studies conducted on expatriates are mainly conceptually based or either based on the primary expatriate’s background like the experience of business or either overseas country experience. This implies that there is high comprehensive as well as a systematic approach that requires analysing about how the characteristics of expatriates can impact the global process of knowledge transfer in the context of both the translation of knowledge and knowledge transfer usefulness (Donaldson and Grant-Vallone, 2002). Therefore, this paper aims to begin from the viewpoint of knowledge translation and the analysis of the impact of expatriates features on the process of knowledge transfer and to measure empirically how it create influence over the new knowledge usefulness in the unique context.
The case study has presented the small review of the previous literature that was based on knowledge transfer as well as expatriate’s role in overseas subsidiaries. Then, as per the literature review, a short discussion will be made over the relation existing among the characteristics of expatriates and global transfer of knowledge (Donaldson and Grant-Vallone, 2002). Along with this, implementation outcomes will be discussed against the knowledge management aspects, and concluding remarks will be drawn.
Review of KMS
According to the Doz, Santos and Williamson (2001), a critical area in international human resource management focuses towards expatriation, which is referred as the cross-border assignment, which exists for a specific time. Expatriates can be applied for various reasons, for particular needs of staff (a vacancy lying in overseas unit), for management development (global experienced management team development), and for organizational development (coordination and control, installation of corporate culture, and transfer of knowledge) (Davenport and Larry, 2005).
As per Gilles (2007), the international assignment is viewed as the critical tool in the development of international leaders. Therefore, the focus of this research is over exploring the type of learning that exist between the global assignments and career living after the assignment, while developing the international management cadre.
Most of the present research emphasize directly over the transferring knowledge to overseas affiliates by the expatriates (Gilles, 2007). When multinational corporations decide to transfer the knowledge, especially the tacit knowledge among various units, it should also allocate staff to overseas operations. In a different context, expatriates are counted among the core mechanism for transferring the knowledge. For instance,
Firestone and McElroy (2003) mention that expatriation is referred as a tool through which companies can collect and maintain the resident knowledge base, related to global operations complexities. Nevertheless, the literature on expatriates has not included about the problems in a significant manner, and there exist massive scope for developing the research, that relies on the expatriate’s notion as the way of transferring knowledge (Miller, 2005).
KM tools and KM techniques
Tools
Access knowledge- this tool offers easy access to explicit knowledge, which could be easily shared and transfer by enterprise information system.
Semantic mapping- These tools assist in information presentation, its analysis as well as decision making.
Knowledge extraction- this tool assist in structuring replies and queries. They support in mining the information through interpreting the relationship between various components and documents.
Expertise location- this tool searches location of knowledge holders and even facilitate in knowledge exchange and its collaboration (Miller, 2005).
Techniques
Knowledge harvesting- this technique converts the high performing expertise into the knowledge assets, to make knowledge learners analyse the process and attain better outcomes. This technique is applied in developing new items, capturing the knowledge through various employees and then come up with new KM project.
Knowledge audit process- it examines the previous and potential sources, constraints and flow of knowledge. It also explores and then locates the tacit knowledge (Miller, 2005). It constructs the knowledge map related to knowledge flows and stocks.
KM tools and KM techniques
Knowledge mapping- it covers information records and knowledge about companies requirements. It includes knowledge about the company, such as quality, accessibility, and location.
Intranet- it’s a beneficial tool that assists in initiating knowledge management. Intranet also supports activities like employees directories, communities of practice finds experts and bring cultural change (Miller, 2005).
KM models and KM processes
KM Models
KM shows the process, which explains management strategy for building, diversifying and improving knowledge. The strength of KM model relies on its strategy, which places knowledge management into action.
KM Process
KM process is categorized into four parts; firstly, it locates the knowledge source; then it organizes knowledge for assessing company’s strength and weaknesses and examine its reusability (Bonache and Brewster, 2000). At last, knowledge is internalized by its usage.
Organisational learning and learning organization
Learning organization and organizational learning are same in the way, as they connect with one another, but also get differ, as the first one get involved in actual learning, and another one is involved with course of attaining learning in the organization. Organizational learning is the process of enhancing actions by better understanding and knowledge (Bonache and Brewster, 2000). Learning organization is the company that builds strategies for improving and increasing learning.
Knowledge sharing and trust
Trust
There are two kinds of trust in the process of knowledge sharing such as competence-based trust and benevolence trust. When some people believe in trust, they are mainly thinking about benevolence based trust. As per this trust, individuals wouldn’t intentionally hurt others, even if they are given an opportunity (Bonache and Brewster, 2000). Other trusts play a significant role in sharing knowledge. Competence-based trust explains the relationship, under which individual’s think that other individual holds knowledge about given area. For instance, staff can trust their colleagues that they have the knowledge, which they need (competence-based trust), but the colleague has no trust that they will be useful when the information is required (benevolence based trust).
Knowledge sharing
There are various reasons, why knowledge is an integral part of the firm. Knowledge sharing helps in minimizing the time for marketing new items with the help of enhanced group process (Bonache and Brewster, 2000). Knowledge sharing is helpful for individuals, who examine the organizational value in the context of their ability to understand people, who hold knowledge, interpret information, the timing for information sharing.
Communities of practice
It explains the learning theory with its connection with knowledge construction. The community of practice includes the members that communicate with one another, to initiate the similar method. That’s why it’s a gathered practice that connects people working with organizational departments and they form a community (Bonache and Brewster, 2000). In this, knowledge is linked with values, culture, and community language.
KM Models
Applying knowledge for innovation
For innovation, knowledge is transferred in the culture of the company, as it initiates the collaborated learning networks with the help of a community of practice, and shared social kind of activities. Knowledge sharing leads to generate new knowledge, and it also absorbs new technologies and ideas (Bonache and Brewster, 2000). Companies that adopt new knowledge are innovative and are referred as learning organizations.
New knowledge creation
Knowledge creation is related to continuous transferring and combining different types of knowledge. Brake (1999) recommends that knowledge creation is the type of product, which interplay among them. The changes in the condition of knowledge possession are something, which comes by action, practice and communication for creating new knowledge.
KM and organizational culture
To initiate knowledge management, staff share knowledge with one another. It is essential that leaders should analyse culture on community and organizational level. While culture exists on the level of organization, every community might hold their viewpoints, norms, and understanding. One key influence over the interest of knowledge sharing in culture is known as the problem of reciprocity (Caligiuri and Di Santo, 2001). This implies that individuals are required to perceive the present and future requirements on choosing knowledge for sharing. This can be in the form of direct compensation, or it can be tangible, such as improving the reputation of an individual, but simultaneously, it can be knowledge, which can be returned when any assistance is required next time. At last, internal competition is another aspect related to organizational culture, which might correlate with sharing knowledge and process of knowledge creation.
KM governance
Governance is a priority for all companies that follow current high profile scandals and its laws. Businesses are trying to seek tangible investment returns from each area, especially after the bust of dot com and corporate mismanagement cases (Carpenter, Sanders and Gregersen, 2000). Governance act as an essential tool in directing, and controlling the functions of companies, including knowledge management.
Organisational memory
The organizational memory includes the accumulated information related to past. Every time, when the decision is taken, and its outcomes are examined, information gets added in the organizational memory. The information retrieval process differs as per the facility of retention, which one tries to access. For instance, written documents can search through IT, where else, cultural memory is searched through applying procedures and norms of the workplace (Cave, 2003).
KM Process
Critical discussion
Outcomes of the implementation and compare this against the KM aspects
It is analysed that expatriates personal characteristics impact the knowledge transfer among HQ and subsidiaries existing in the overseas country (Doz, Santos and Williamson, 2001). It is also explored that expatriates expatriation experience as well as their capability of relationship development, both hold a crucial positive impact on the knowledge transfer. It is essential that top management teams of both MNCs, as well as subsidiaries in an overseas country, should explore the significant moderating expatriate’s role in global knowledge transfer (Riusala and Suutari, 2004). In another context, or either in case of sophisticated knowledge, expatriates having the right skills of communication and capability of personal relationship development having the domestic partners can enhance the expectations of successful global knowledge transfer. In this context. Companies should offer different incentives to make sure that expatriates should play right role in overseas subsidiaries (Riusala and Suutari, 2004).
When the companies choose expatriates, they should also follow the cultural literacy and the personal development relations capability with overseas partners (Marr and Spender, 2004). Besides that, expatriates are expected to obtain professional knowledge as well as expertise in the appropriate business area, they should also hold the required skills of communication and development personal relations capability with overseas partners, due to global knowledge transfer that mainly takes place in the overseas country (McAdam and Reid, 2000). Therefore, in the process of expatriate selection, companies should consider all the above aspects. Nevertheless, expatriates training program should cover personal relations development and communication skills.
Conclusion
In this paper, knowledge transfer through expatriates is discussed. In this relation, various concepts of knowledge management are presented, along with literature review that includes the previous research conducted on expatriates and knowledge management. The outcome of its implementation is also analysed in this paper.
References
Bonache, J. and Brewster, C. (2000). Knowledge transfer and the management of expatriation. Thunderbird International Business Review, 43, pp. 145–168.
Brake, T. (1999). The HR manager as global business partner. In P. Joynt & B. Morton (Eds.), The global HR manager (pp. 59–87). London: Institute of Personnel and Development.
Caligiuri, P. and Di Santo, V. (2001). Global competence: What is it, and can it be developed through international assignments? Human Resource Planning, 24(3), pp. 27–35.
Carpenter, M. A., Sanders, W. G., and Gregersen, H. B. (2000). International assignment experience at the top can make a bottom-line difference. Human Resource Management, 39, pp. 277–285.
Cave, A. (2003). Emerging markets: Topping the poles. Director, 57(3), pp. 55–57
Choi, S. and Johanson, J. (2012). Knowledge translation through expatriates in international knowledge transfer. International Business Review, 21, pp. 1148–1157
Davenport, T. H. and Larry, P. (2005). Knowledge management: Executive brief. In Knowledge management and management learning: Extending the horizons of knowledge-based management, edited by Baets, Walter, 2nd Ed. USA: Springer
Donaldson, S. I. and Grant-Vallone, E. J. (2002). Understanding self-report bias in organizational behavior research. Journal of Business and Psychology, 17(2), pp. 245–260.
Doz, Y., Santos, J. and Williamson, P. (2001). From global to metanational—How companies win in the knowledge economy. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press.
Firestone, J. M. and McElroy, M. (2003). Issues in the new knowledge management. Burlington: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Gilles, B. (2007). Technology trends in knowledge management tools. Int.. J. Know. Management, 3(2), pp. 34-39.
Marr, B. and Spender, J.C. (2004). “Measuring knowledge”. Measuring Business Excellence, 8(1), pp. 18-27.
McAdam, R. and Reid, R. (2000). “A comparison of public and private sector perceptions and use of knowledge management”. Journal of European Industrial Training, 24(6), pp. 317-329. Karl, S. (2003). The facts about knowledge. In Knowledge management: Cultivating knowledge professionals. Oxford: Al-Hawamdeh, Suliman. Chandos Publishing.
Miller, R. (2005). The evolution of knowledge management. E Content, 28(11), pp. 22-28.
Riusala, K. and Suutari, V. (2004). ‘International knowledge transfer and expatriates.’ Thunderbird International Business Review, 46, pp. 743-770.
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