Consequence-based Ethical Theories and Their Important Features
Questions:
1.Consider the ethical dilemma surrounding deployment of artificial intelligence (AI) for self-driving vehicles.
“The tech is not so great, however, the people who work one of the most common jobs in the country, one that provides a steady middle class income”.
Analyse the above issue using an ethical perspective.
2.What are the important features of consequence-based ethical theories? Explain with suitable examples.
3.What are the strengths and weakness of the IEEE Computer Society, and the Australian Computer Society code of ethics? What are some of the criticisms of professional code of ethics in general?
1.The term artificial intelligence literally means intelligence that is being displayed by the machines. The term was founded in 1956 (Russel & Norvig, 2016). This kind of processes is used in case of robotics technology and in self-driving vehicles. The main objective of such kinds of device is to act as human minds and enable the object to solve the problem while at work. The main discussed subjects under this process are planning, reasoning, knowledge, perception and manipulating subjects. It often includes artificial psychology and neuroscience. Self-driving cars are an example of artificial intelligence (Russell & Bohannon, 2015). The concept regarding the artificial car or self driving car is to lower the risk of accident or save the life of the drivers. It is one of the greatest inventions of science. However, there are certain dilemmas that take place in case of the artificial intelligence system. The dilemmas includes ethical dilemma such as trolley dilemma and utilitarian ethical issues.
The theory of trolley ethical dilemmas or problems was coined by Philippa Foot and deals with certain experimental ethical issues. It is a part of the philosophical ethics or moral ethics. The basic ground of this theory is providing a systematic approach to the right or wrong behaviour. The theories regarding philosophical ethics can be divided into three parts such as meta-ethics, normative ethics and applied ethics. Meta-ethics are used for finding out the source of the ethical issues (Joh, 2017). Normative ethics are based on certain moral standards to regulate the rights and wrongful conduct. The terms of the applied ethics are being used on certain matters like environment-based matters, capital punishments and nuclear war. In case of trolley dilemma, the meta-ethical theories and normative theories can be applied.
There are certain ethical perspectives present in case of self-driving trucks. It is important to identify all the ethical challenges belonging to the self-driving trucks. The effects of the ethical issues on the decision making powers are to be traces out. Certain approaches are also needed to understand the ground rules of ethics.
In trolley dilemma, certain ethical dilemmas are involved. It is all about the mental ethical issues. For instance, if in a lane, three people are working and in a by-lane one people is working and a break fail self-driving truck is running towards them, the car could ram the wall to save the life of the people. This issue is being known as the trolley dilemma and totally based on the psychological theories of humankind. The theory is based on moral psychology.
Trolley Dilemma and Ethical Perspectives
Source: (“The Trolley Dilemma: Would You Kill One Person To Save Five?”, 2017)
However, the ethics relating to the artificial intelligence is particularly based on the robot ethics and depending on the designed moral behaviour and machinery ethics. Robots are the self-designed machines that are used to reduce the working pressure and act as a human being in certain circumstances. Certain artificial intelligences have been installed within them so that they can manage situational crisis. Robot ethics decide whether the robots are being used for the benefit of the human or to harm the human. There are certain robot rights that are similar to the human rights. Robot rights include right to perform according to the mission, serve all the duties as transmitted by the human being and also the right to exists. According to the UK Department of Trade and Industry, the modern robot ethics are based on the principle of human rights and concerned about the rights like right to life, freedom of thoughts and equality before law.
It has been examined by the researchers that the robot ethics are creating certain impressions on the decision-making power of the self-driving cars or trucks (West, 2016). Decisions regarding the speed, directions, and gear and GPS methods are very much depended upon the ethical decisions. However, if a car or truck cannot identify the sensor at the proper time, accident may happen and legal proceedings may be imposed. Therefore, robot ethics should be designed with great care.
Consequence-based theory is a part of the philosophical ethics and the principle of the theory is normative in nature. The philosophical theory is depending on three pillars such as meta-ethics, normative and applied (Valentine, 2015). The definition and source of the ethical principles are dealt by the meta-ethics. The normative theories are dealing with the practical solution of the ethical principles. It maintains the moral standard by regulating the positive and the negative behaviour. Applied ethics are implemented on certain arguable issues like rights, environmental issues, and nuclear war. Consequence-based ethical theories are part of the normative theories. According to the theory, when a person does an act, the outcome of such act will depict the positive or negative aspects of a conduct. Considering the fact, the things or acts that are morally good will produce the good result and the opposite will produce bad result. The main pioneer of the theory was Demosthenes. According to him, end of every task justifies the means and determine the moral sentiment hidden in it.
The philosophical approach of the theory has reflected the ideology of the deontological theories. According to the theory, the moral duties are the main thing and behaviour of a person decides the correctness of a work. The philosophies of consequentialism can be divided into ten parts and these can be termed as the main features of this theory. The features can be divided by as follows:
- State consequentialism;
- Utilitarianism;
- Ethical egoism;
- Ethical altruism;
- Rule consequentialism;
- Two-level consequentialism;
- Motive consequentialism;
- Negative consequentialism;
- Teleological consequentialism;
- Act and omission doctrine.
According to the state consequentialism, the moral duties of a person can be justified on the basis of implication of the act on a state. Supporters of this theory believed that any disharmony against the state should be regarded as the wrongful act and morality should be presented as the only solution to these negativities.
Ethics of Artificial Intelligence and Robot Ethics
Main profounder of utilitarianism theory was Jeremy Bentham. As per this theory, people are driven by two different emotions such as the interest and the fear (Nobes, Panagiotaki, & Engelhardt, 2017). The people can overcome the fear and go behind their interest. However, in this process, people have to think about the outcome of the act they are performing and according to this theory, happiness means pleasure and not pain.
The basis of the consequential theory has been laid under the ethical egoism and it prescribes certain steps that should be beneficial for the egoistic character of the person. The ego can create certain implications on the society, as the society is comprised of the individuals.
The common objective of the consequence-based theory is to look after the actions of an individual and it is believed that the result of such action will decide the aspects of the conduct. However, there are certain exceptions to this rule and rule consequentialism is one of them. This theory can be termed as rule utilitarianism or rule egoism. According to Robert Nozick, this rule can be considered as the only principle that determines the good behaviour of a parson. The incoherent nature of the rule depicts certain guidelines and of the view that rules can lead towards the good result. In the words of Brad Hooker, this rule is based on moral conviction and should be treated as one of the greatest theories on morality.
The doctrine of two-level consequentialism is based on critical reasoning and it states that a person should analyse all the ramifications before taking any decision. It is the ethical duty of a person to take all the decisions on the basis of moral rules (Liu et al., 2017). In this theory, two levels depict acts and rules from which the morality derives. The main supporter to the theory is Peter Singer.
These are the main features of consequentialism and the basis of the theory is depending on the moral behaviour of the human being. It intends to widen the positive results and concentrates on the morality of the human behaviour. The example can be as follows:
If a child has been engaged in a coffee shop, the views can be different from different approaches. According to Deontologist, child involvement in the work place is wrong. On the other hand, as per the views of consequentialists, the better thing would be to decide whether the employment process is good or bad.
There are certain societies who are dealing with the matters related to the computer science and technology. IEEE computer society is one of them (“The Community for Technology Leaders • IEEE Computer Society”, 2017). It is an ultimate source of the technologies and it helps the professionals and the persons who are engaged with computer networking systems (Warren et al., 2016). Considering the effective operational features of this society, it is treated as a leader in computer education and programming. However, every computer-based society has to maintain certain ethical programs, which are particularly known as the computer ethics. The objectives of the computer ethics can be analysed through professional ethics.
There are certain advantages of this society. This society is one of the regulating medium in case of the computer education and programming. This society has provided certain certificates to the professionals and these help to analyse their skills on that ground. The certificates are highlighting the competencies also. This society helps the professionals to identify the positive and negative sides of their team and focuses on the product development. The society provides services to the government and deals with all the technical activities and professional features. There are various technological committees that engaged with the educational perspectives and all of them are following a certain ethics that helps to reduce complexities and work in a uniform way. Professional ethics help a society by providing guidance, discipline and proper education (Weckert, 2017). Maintenance of ethics are necessary as the computer society has certain good and bad sides. It is up to the society whether it wants to cause harm or resolve the disputes. Professional ethics help the society to moralise their behaviours.
However, there are certain disadvantages too in case of the IEEE code of ethics that can be classified as follows:
Professional ethics are restricting the profitable parameter of a business organisation and they become incapable to earn extra profit. This mentality can cause a serious destruction in case of the industry and create dangerous effect on the economy. The time in this process has been invested in an inefficient manner (Stahl et al., 2014). Therefore, there is a possibility of wasting of time and that could lead a serious demotion in case of business goal.
There are certain criticisms made against the professional code by all the ICT professionals. It has been stated by the critiques that there is no specific consequences prescribed for the violation of the codes and the rules of the code are not mandatory. The provisions of the code are vague in nature and they depict no social values. However, the ethical codes are, to certain extent, help the professional to complete their work under specifies mandates and maintain discipline in the workplace or business.
References:
Colquitt, J., Dowsett, D., Gami, A., Equities, I. F., Jaysane-Darr, E., Partner, I. P. C., … & Income, I. F. (2017). Driverless cars: How innovation paves the road to investment opportunity.
Iqbal, J., & Beigh, B. M. (2017). Computer Ethics from Obscure to Ubiquitous. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science, 8(3).
Joh, E. E. (2017). ‘A Certain Dangerous Engine’: Private Security Robots, Artificial Intelligence, and Deadly Force.
Liu, T., Fuller, J., Hutton, A., & Grant, J. (2017). Consequence?based communication about adolescent romantic experience between parents and adolescents: A qualitative study underpinned by social constructionism. Nursing & Health Sciences.
Nobes, G., Panagiotaki, G., & Engelhardt, P. E. (2017). The development of intention-based morality: The influence of intention salience and recency, negligence, and outcome on children’s and adults’ judgments. Developmental psychology, 53(10), 1895.
Russel, S., & Norvig, P. (2016). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 3rd edt. chapter 3. Essex, UK: Pearson.
Russell, S., & Bohannon, J. (2015). Artificial intelligence. Fears of an AI pioneer. Science (New York, NY), 349(6245), 252-252.
Stahl, B. C., Eden, G., Jirotka, M., & Coeckelbergh, M. (2014). From computer ethics to responsible research and innovation in ICT: The transition of reference discourses informing ethics-related research in information systems. Information & Management, 51(6), 810-818.
The Community for Technology Leaders • IEEE Computer Society. (2017). Computer.org. Retrieved 22 December 2017, from https://www.computer.org/.
The Trolley Dilemma: Would You Kill One Person To Save Five?. (2017). IFLScience. Retrieved 22 December 2017, from https://www.iflscience.com/editors-blog/trolley-dilemma-would-you-kill-one-person-save-five/
Valentine, S. (2015). The Case for Considering Virtue Ethics in Organizational Ethics and Human Resource Management. Handbook of Virtue Ethics in Business and Management, 1-9.
Warren, M., Warren, M., Lucas, R., & Lucas, R. (2016). Ethics and ICT: Why all the fuss?. Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, 14(2), 167-169.
Weckert, J. (Ed.). (2017). Computer ethics. Routledge.
West, D. M. (2016). Moving forward: Self-driving vehicles in China, Europe, Japan, Korea, and the United States.
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