Perinatal Depression and Anxiety in Single Mothers
Question:
Discuss about the Depression in single mothers in Australia.
Anxiety or Depression is the most common psychiatric disorder for single mothers. This symptom can result from mild to severe. Different studies provide different estimation of perinatal depression and anxiety whose estimation is between 7 % and 20 % in countries having high income and more than 20 % in countries having low and middle income. Different field of scientist produced various health promotional model that are influencing the behavior of health and understanding the habits of health through a framework for a depressed single mothers. Among single mother, depression is prevalent and produces some health and negative psychosocial outcome for their mothers, children and families. The research and theory that addresses the promotional needs of health and the factor that are influencing the status of health are limited. This literature will review the factors that influence the health promotional needs, health status and health practices/habits for a depressed single mother and present them a health promotional models and theories of depression applicable. This will address the factors that have an impact in their health status and behavior of the health. This report describes the database search and the keyword used for a systematic analysis. This literature will discuss about the model of the promotional health and about the depressed single mother behavior change that occur.
Depression/anxiety is a mood disorder and a feeling of nervousness and disturbance in mood and thought. The symptoms include helplessness, hopelessness, apathy, guilt, poor concentration, somatic complaints, and disturbance in sleep. Those single mothers diagnose with depression have this symptoms for about two weeks that cause social and occupational impairment. The impacts of it have lead to disability and death. Single mothers families are defined where mother do not have any spouse or partner and lives with dependent children.
A systematic literature analysis involved in the single mothers anxiety and depression aims to identify the risk factors for environmental and psychosocial. The medical research and psychological databases uses PsychINFO, PubMed and Library of Cochrane to select the review with the keywords that include antenatal anxiety, depression/anxiety risk factor during anxiety, antenatal mental health risk factor, prenatal depression/anxiety risk factors, screening, evaluation, and assessment (Scope, Uttley & Sutton, 2017).
Psychological and psychiatric impact: During the period of antenatal anxiety and depression are comorbid. The strongest factor of risk for depression is the high anxiety at the time of pregnancy. It is sure that the feeling of anxiety by women leads to increase the risk of depression at the time of pregnancy. Even in a study done recently, it has found that women experiencing antenatal anxiety likely to suffer three time more depression at the time of pregnancy (Mohamad Yusuff et al., 2016).
Systematic Literature Analysis
A history of any mental illness, anxiety and depression or any treatment history of a psychiatric at the time of pregnancy or lifetime if any will also establish a factor of risk to develop an antenatal anxiety and depression. In one of the study, it was found that half of those women who were depressed during the time of pregnancy had a major depressive disorder in their past history (Gentile, 2017). In addition to this, another study found that with the absence of psychiatric disorder of the previous was absent and was likely that after the childbirth the antenatal anxiety and depression get recover (McKenzie-McHarg et al., 2015). Nevertheless, another author found that apart from the past risk factor of a depression was strong for a present time of pregnancy; half of the women who were depressed during pregnancy were never depressed before. Through this study, it can be suggested that women who are depressed during pregnancy are not necessarily be depressed in the past or have it impact in the present.
In a study, a correlation between the past or current alcohol use and antenatal anxiety or depression has found. It also shown that smoking during or after pregnancy will predict depression and anxiety at the time of pregnancy (Lahti et al., 2017). In one of the recent research, it was found smoking woman during pregnancy would suffer from antenatal depression as compare to those quitting smoking during pregnancy, twice with the one who continues smoking at the time of pregnancy with depression that of woman that are healthy. However, in another study, it was found that the antenatal depression risk increases with cigarette smoking no matter whether the women abstain smoking of cigarette at the time of pregnancy (Kirkan et al., 2015). In one of the study, it was not only found that depression was associated with smoking during pregnancy, it was also associated with the increasing level of depression with the number of cigarettes increasing per day. In another similar study, it was again found that antenatal depression was not associated with women smoking during pregnancy. It was also found that substance use during pregnancy was strongly associated with the antenatal depression (Meijer et al., 2014).
Marital relationship and Social support and their impact: It was identified in some study that a depressive symptom is experience by a women during the antenatal period are those who are not married or single or having a partner not living together in the same household (Moura et al., 2015). In a study, it was found that depression reach a level higher in women that are living with their friends and community as compare to the one cohabitating with their partner (Helliwell et al., 2017). However, it was observe by some researchers that during pregnancy single mother are more likely to be depressed than those with supportive partners. This has been explained by a hassles level, abuses, depression history, present emotional problems, level of income and infant maternal perception. One interesting thing is that, the symptom of depression level of a single mother is lower compare to the women who are with unsupportive partner (McMahon et al., 2015). With all these findings it has concluded that to be a single mother is far more better than an unsupportive relationship and having with difficulties.
Psychological and Psychiatric Impact
In twentieth century, the number of single mother families increases rapidly. Depression has affected 14.8 millions of Americans and 121 million worldwide (Friedman, 2014). The healthcare agencies identified depression poorly and then treated the single mother as a vulnerable population for poor health risk. Estimation shows that in any year only 5.8 % of men and 9.5 % women worldwide affected by depression that is nearly twice as many as men (Musi? Milanovi? et al., 2015). Evidence of empirical studies shows single mother depression with high prevalence. According to secondary data analysis in the Survey of National Population Health, many of the author have found that episode of depression were more likely found on single mother than those mother that are married (El-Behadli et al., 2015). Most of the Single parents seek help from a psychiatric disorder more than two or three times. Regardless of married, divorced or separated mother, single mother reported longer lifetime with rate of depression for one-year prevalence to receive a welfare benefits. In another survey with 100 custodial fathers and 626 custodial mothers of households and families, it was found that single mother were more depressed then single father (Coles, 2015). Postnatal Depression has affected 16 % of the Australian mothers.
The single mother onset depression risk has doubled the married mother. As compared to other group, Single mothers were more depressed. The committee of human research ethics conducts a study, which has approved by New England University, Australia, a Committee of Human Research Ethics (Seven et al., 2017). The interactions with all the participants were online. The participants were of the age of 18 years or above. The participants has to view the sheet of information online for questionnaire; it will outlined the anonymous and voluntary nature of the survey. The consent procedure of the participant will fulfill the requirements of the New England University, Australia, a Committee of Human Research Ethics.
Evidence shows that many single mothers on welfare have a very poor education level, do not have relevant skill of the job and experience of work force lack and thus associated with unemployment. Using the data of Australia, the author has demonstrated that the characteristics of socio-demographic and human capital are associated with both partnered and lone mothers employment. Common disorder of mental namely anxiety and depression are found to be more prevalent than the disorder in psychotic. In a report it was also found that single mothers are physically disable and a poor physical health than the one who are not receiving welfare. Another author had shown that single mother with chronic physical health likely working than with no health problem. In a recent review also, some author conclude that for the welfare of the lone mother, poor physical health becomes an employment barrier. Finally, the analysis has also considered the experience physical and sexual violence of a single mother. Several reasons can be consider for this issue. The author in a research with the current concern for a long-term welfare receipt of Australia has found that those women cycled welfare on and off reported violence and abuse whose level is much higher.
Medical and Psychological Databases Used for Systematic Analysis
The review of this literature does not include meta-analysis for different impact of the risk factor. There is no specific factor to examine the depression or anxiety from a single mother to the period of postpartum (Gaillard et al., 2014).
Models applicable to depression: The Pender’s Model addresses the internal and the external variables. It influence the behavior of the health that include the characteristics and experience of the individual, demands that have affects and immediate compete. Once there is an interaction within one another and the commitment of a person is determined through an action plan that results in the health promoting behavior performance. The depression factors of risk in the single mothers are embedded within the Pender’s Model. One of the Models for Pender’s Model is the perceived self-efficacy model for both direct and indirect behavior change that influences the action of perceived barriers. The beliefs of Self-efficacy influence particularly the behavior at the time of depression. This depression to health promoting behaviors is address by this model. When the perceived self-efficacy is higher, the effort of a behavior performance will be more persistent and vigorous which determines the health habits when facing some obstacles.
The Depression Cognitive Theory: Some thought process that are negative and produce a dysfunctional cognitive products for self negative views, automatic negative thoughts, distortion and cognitive errors, negative constructions and appraisals that leads to depression. The propositions of self-efficacy state that people have doubt in their capabilities will be slow from recovering from their sense of efficacy. The social cognitive theory has close similarities between the concepts and proposed relationship that predicts depression in applying the self-efficacy in the heath promotional for depressed single mothers. The self-efficacy belief has enhanced the impact on the behavior of the health by outcome expectations, influencing goals, socio-structural facilitators and behavior change impediments. The chronic trajectory of depression accompanies the sequelae and the risk factor for potential health promotion impediments to single mothers. Those mothers with low self-efficacy develop depressive symptoms which in turn impediments setting to address the health goal positively and the behaviors for the health participation decreases in accordance with the model (Lara et al., 2017).
Conclusion
The result shows the complex antenatal depression and anxiety. The risk of anxiety and depression for single mothers has to identify by the administration through universal practice to promote the wellbeing of mother for a long-term. If the knowledge of the risk factor is created through screening tool target the high risk for women. The research has shown that it is often difficult to recognize a depression in a single woman. The model will address the status of the socioeconomic, social support, perceived stressors, control perception and the traits of personality which indicate the range of risk of depression as mild, moderate or high. With this report it is clear that single mothers are at risk of poor health and depression.
Impact of Marital Relationship and Social Support
References
Coles, R. L. (2015). Single?father families: A review of the literature. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 7(2), 144-166.
El-Behadli, A. F., Sharp, C., Hughes, S. O., Obasi, E. M., & Nicklas, T. A. (2015). Maternal depression, stress and feeding styles: towards a framework for theory and research in child obesity. British journal of nutrition, 113(S1), S55-S71.
Friedman, A. (2014). Jump-starting natural resilience reverses stress susceptibility. Science, 346(6209), 555-555.
Gaillard, A., Le Strat, Y., Mandelbrot, L., Keïta, H., & Dubertret, C. (2014). Predictors of postpartum depression: Prospective study of 264 women followed during pregnancy and postpartum. Psychiatry research, 215(2), 341-346.
Gentile, S. (2017). Untreated depression during pregnancy: Short-and long-term effects in offspring. A systematic review. Neuroscience, 342, 154-166.
Helliwell, J. F., Aknin, L. B., Shiplett, H., Huang, H., & Wang, S. (2017). Social Capital and Prosocial Behaviour as Sources of Well-Being (No. w23761). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Kirkan, T. S., Aydin, N., Yazici, E., Akcali Aslan, P., Acemoglu, H., & Daloglu, A. G. (2015). The depression in women in pregnancy and postpartum period: A follow-up study. International journal of social psychiatry, 61(4), 343-349.
Lahti, M., Savolainen, K., Tuovinen, S., Pesonen, A. K., Lahti, J., Heinonen, K., … & Kajantie, E. (2017). Maternal depressive symptoms during and after pregnancy and psychiatric problems in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(1), 30-39.
Lara, M. A., Patiño, P., Navarrete, L., Hernández, Z., & Nieto, L. (2017). Association between depressive symptoms and psychosocial factors and perception of maternal self-efficacy in teenage mothers. Salud Mental, 40(5), 201-208.
McKenzie-McHarg, K., Ayers, S., Ford, E., Horsch, A., Jomeen, J., Sawyer, A., … & Slade, P. (2015). Post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth: an update of current issues and recommendations for future research. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 33(3), 219-237.
McMahon, C. A., Boivin, J., Gibson, F. L., Hammarberg, K., Wynter, K., & Fisher, J. R. (2015). Older maternal age and major depressive episodes in the first two years after birth: Findings from the Parental Age and Transition to Parenthood Australia (PATPA) study. Journal of affective disorders, 175, 454-462.
Meijer, J. L., Bockting, C. L., Stolk, R. P., Kotov, R., Ormel, J., & Burger, H. (2014). Associations of life events during pregnancy with longitudinal change in symptoms of antenatal anxiety and depression. Midwifery, 30(5), 526-531.
Mohamad Yusuff, A. S., Tang, L., Binns, C. W., & Lee, A. H. (2016). Prevalence of antenatal depressive symptoms among women in Sabah, Malaysia. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 29(7), 1170-1174.
Moura, V. F. D. S., Pedrão, L. J., Souza, A. C. S., & Boaventura, R. P. (2015). Depression among pregnant women at the end of pregnancy. SMAD. Revista eletrônica saúde mental álcool e drogas, 11(4), 234-242.
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Scope, A., Uttley, L., & Sutton, A. (2017). A qualitative systematic review of service user and service provider perspectives on the acceptability, relative benefits, and potential harms of art therapy for people with non?psychotic mental health disorders. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 90(1), 25-43.
Seven, M., Akyüz, A., Eroglu, K., Daack?Hirsch, S., & Skirton, H. (2017). Women’s knowledge and use of prenatal screening tests. Journal of clinical nursing, 26(13-14), 1869-1877.
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