Literature Review
Discuss about the challenges of computing facing the smooth implementation of IoT.
The internet of things devices includes sensors and service applications that located at different places within the smart city. These devices are connected to each other through different mode of connection to allow data transmission such as Wi-Fi networks, low energy Bluetooth, wide area networks and cellular or satellite networks. IoT devices generate a lot of data and need similar quantity of processed information to function. Therefore, this creates a need for cloud and fog computing domains to provide for storage and data analysis services since the IoT devices themselves are basic electronic entities that do not have that high computing power nor human interaction to store and analyse the generated data. The use of wireless or wired networks for data transmission to connect the IoT physical entities enables them to transmit and receive data from the cloud server or fog computers. The process of data transmission exposes the IoT system in the smart city to a series of threats. The attacks primarily involve data losses and secondarily malicious intent to access and interfere with the data. Data interferences on the networks occur at different levels of the network layers depending on the type of domain being used, Chiang et al (2018).
According to Hosseinian-Far et al (2018), Processors that were shabby and control sufficiently thrifty to be everything except expendable were required before it progressed toward becoming financially savvy to associate up billions of gadgets. The appropriation of RFID labels the low-manager chips which can impart remotely keeping on understanding the portion of this particular issue, alongside the expanding accessibility of broadband web, and remote systems administration and the cell. The selection of IPv6 that, in addition to other things, ought to give enough IP delivers to each gadget the world is ever liable to require the additionally a very important advance for the IoT to scale. As Kevin Ashton instituted the adage ‘Web of Things’ in 1999, in spite of the fact that it took at any rate one more decade for the innovation to get up to speed with the vision.
Alrawais et al (2017), the author highlights the challenges of computing facing the smooth implementation of IoT in smart cities and in his paper determines that the time is nigh for development of smart cities. The author illustrates how the economic, technological, social and environmental factors favour the adoption of smart cities. The article concludes by expecting a high impact of the IoT as an emerging trend in the setup of digital smart urban centres.
IoT Implementation in Smart Cities
Alessio Botta, Walter de Donato, Valerio Persico and Antonio Pescapé in their research paper dated 2015, review the integration of cloud computing and internet of things. The authors review the use of the CloudioT paradigm in the integration of cloud computing into IoT. The writers further provide the challenges to the CloudioT paradigm in the implementation of the architecture into the IoT. In the implementation of the CloudioT cloud computing, the writers note the challenge of the network vulnerabilities in the protection of user data in terms of privacy and data losses. However, the authors do not outline the specific threats and attacks, therefore forming a basis for this research and therefore further research too because development of more fool proof systems is always associated with development of cleverer fools.
In the paper by Rodolfo, Preethi and Jiang (2010), the authors appreciate the design and development of the internet of things as the primary pillar in the infrastructure of the smart cities. The authors identify the flaws and propose a systemic architecture that allows short-term and faster data analysis that require less computational power different from that offered by the cloud computing. The data analytical system is on the edge of the network connected to the core and thus name it Fog computing. The research does not provide for the vulnerabilities in the network linking and allowing data transmission of the core of the IoT to the edge fog computing system hence forming the need for this research.
In the article Cross-Site Virtual Network in Cloud and Fog Computing by Rafael Moreno; Ruben S. Montero; Eduardo Huedo and Ignacio M. Llorente, the authors analyse the challenges in the interconnection of the physical entities of the IoT to the cloud and fog computing. The researchers analyse the extent to which the limitations effect the fog computing environment. The writers determine that network vulnerabilities in the virtual network provides a limitation to the computing environment in form data losses, breaches and network failure. The researchers provide a simple and efficient interface for the designing, implementation and use of the second and third layers of the networks. However, they do not offer specific data attack threats on the layers of the network hence the basis for this research.
In the paper by Amin Hosseinian-Far, Muthu Ramachandran and Charlotte Lilly Slack, Emerging Trends in Cloud Computing, Big Data, Fog Computing, IoT and Smart Living, the writers focus on the quality and quantity of the data collected and analysed by the IoT system in the smart cities. The research focusses on the development of smart cities, internet of things as the framework of the infrastructure and the utilization of cloud computing. In the paper, the researchers do not outline the network vulnerabilities of the network set-up of the IoT in the smart city thus the need for this report.
Risks and Vulnerabilities in IoT Infrastructure
The authors Yiliang Liu, Hsiao-Hwa Chen and Liangmin Wang in the paper published in 2010, “Physical Layer Security for Next Generation Wireless Networks: Theories, Technologies, and Challenges” explains the physical layer security. The report illustrates the nature of transmission in the channel networks for data security and authentication. The paper demonstrates the technology used by the PHY-security to secure data transmission in wireless communications. The authors determined the challenges of data breach, man-in-the-middle attacks and malicious insider as challenges to transmission. However, the article does not review the specific data threats to the PHY-security.
Andreas Zanella, Nicola Bui, Angelo Castellani, Lorenzo Vangellsta and Michelle Zorzi in there article dated 2011, concluded that internet of things is able to integrate e-services in the delivery of services and products to the citizens. The authors analysed the solutions to the implementation of IoT in smart cities. The channel interfaces over that, this criticism data is directed and can be either boisterous, rate -restricted, or rather can be adjourned, prompting the CSIT vulnerability. In this particular paper, we familiarise a thorough survey of later and continuous investigation takes a shot at physical layer security with the CSIT vulnerability. We center around both data theoretic and flag preparing ways to deal with the subject when the vulnerability concerns the channel to the wire tapper, and the channel to the genuine beneficiary. In addition, we display a grouping of the exploration works in light of the considered channel vulnerability. For the most part, we recognize the states once the vulnerability originates from an assessment blunder of the CSIT the direct from a CSI criticism interface with restricted limit, or from an obsolete CSIT. The report illustrates the nature of transmission in the channel networks for data security and authentication. The paper demonstrates the technology used by the PHY-security to secure data transmission in wireless communications. The authors determined the challenges of data breach, man-in-the-middle attacks and malicious insider as challenges to transmission. However, the article does not review the specific data threats to the PHY-security.
To understand the concepts of smart city and the utilization of Internet of Things to deliver efficient services to the public. The research focused on finding out the different ways in which Internet of Things has been implemented to provide e-services in different modern and smart cities across the world.
To evaluate the risks and vulnerabilities that the hidden channel, data plane and control plane of cloud computing in IoT in smart cities is exposed to. The research intended to provide an insight to the vulnerabilities in implementation of cloud and fog computing in the internet of things architecture of modern cities.
Integration of Cloud Computing and Fog Computing
To determine and explain issues and challenges undermining the implementation of the IoT infrastructure in smart cities. The scope of the research directed a broad output to determine such challenges.
This section explains and compares the different methodologies used by the different authors in the literature review and find a suitable research methodology to fulfil the study question in the research, Crasta et al (2017).
A stratified sampling method was used to identify 4 cities across the globe that had implemented the development of Internet of things infrastructure to offer services to the inhabitants of the city.
The following methodologies were used in the past and present to qualitatively and quantitatively collect and analyse data.
Structured interviews: the researcher asks the participants a set of predetermined questions that strictly relate to the implementation and security vulnerabilities of IoT in smart cities. It is best suited for quantitative data analysis.
In-depth interviews: the researcher allows the participants to express their views concerning the IoT in smart cities freely and openly. It is based on forming an efficient interviewer-participant relation founded on respect and trust. The interviewer allows the participants to air even the emotional aspects of their opinions. However, the interviewer has the power to interrupt the process in case the participants are veering off the research topic. It is best for qualitative data analysis.
Structured observation: the researcher visits the smart cities and observes the different areas in which internet of things entities such as sensors, street lights and modes of connections are used while making notes about the issues.
Structured questionnaires: a set of questions are printed on paper and given to the participants to answer relating to the IoT. The questions are open ended or closed ended.
Focused group discussions: a number of participants are brought together and allowed to discuss within themselves in the presence of the researcher on issues about implementation of the smart city internet of things infrastructure.
Considering and comparing the methodologies used in the past and the present to collect and analyse data on internet of things in smart cities, to determine the challenges expected, faced and mitigated during the design and implementation of the IoT infrastructure, the following methodology was utilized.
Structured in-depth interviews: the participants, which included city residents, network administrators and management were allowed to answer and explain, in an open manner, the issues they considered basic in the implementation of the IoT infrastructure in the smart cities. This methodology was complimented with direct observation of the IoT infrastructure in the city.
Challenges in IoT Infrastructure Implementation
By using the above method, I would like to compare the best resulted methodologies which includes Interview and Focused group discussions.
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Interview |
Focused group discussions |
|
1. Most of the participants never had clear information about Smart City therefore most of the responses given were not up to the requirements |
1. The participants had time to discuss together on the topic under investigation and most of their responses were correct. |
|
2. Most of the participants were not willing to give details information since they were worried of their identify and privacy to information |
2 The participants were in open discussion and sharing of mind, the information given were not biased and restricted to privacy. |
|
3. Less information was acquired in since a lot of time was taken in interviewing process |
3 The group discussion took a lot of time but again more information was capture and collected from the responses. |
The following results were obtained during the research determining the security vulnerabilities of the cloud and fog domains of the internet of things in smart cities.
Hidden channel attacks.
Implementation and running of the internet of things system produces other effects that form a channel basis for exploitation of the network and data. In cloud service domain, attackers monitor the cache generated during the operation of the system and use the data to perform network compromises. These hidden channels attacks use the following effects generated by the system to monitor the network and data; computational time, power consumption, electromagnetic radiation and fault analysis, Zanella et al (2014).
Data plane attacks.
Data plane functions in forwarding traffic of data packets to the destination according to the control panel algorithm.
Traffic diversion could occur within this network layer and allow eavesdropping by the “man-in-the-middle”.
Spoofing attacks on the data plane network by “man-in-the-middle” to gain access to the network using the ARP-cache poisoning to modify the data flow.
The API of the network’s software can be exploited by malicious individuals on the data plane leading to destruction of data flow and access to private and confidential data that is being transmitted over the network.
Control plane attacks.
The control plane functions in management of the network, signalling the connection of the routers and devices, routing table construction from topology information and system configuration. The control panel decides and controls the direction of packet flow within the network connected the physical entities in the internet of things. The following attacks are performed on the network control panel;
Network compromise on the Software Defined Network controller where an attacker generates false data that initiates network data rerouting. This problem is solved through use of data encryption tools such as blowfish in data transmission.
The SDN controller is vulnerable to denial of service attacks that disrupt the functions of the controller.
Fog domain.
Authentication and trust issues.
The devices forming the fog domain of the internet of things system are vulnerable to data leaks. These computers do not replace the cloud servers but rather supplement them by offering computational services involving short term data storage and analysis. Since the fog domain is assumed not to belong to the trusted cloud domain that is trusted, major privacy issues arise involving data leaks, spoofing and eavesdropping. Communication protocols provide network identifiers such as IP addresses to identify the connected devices and thus authenticated them and exchange data.
Research Methodology
Shared keys using the different models of data encryption that are asymmetrical and symmetrical are set up using a trusted secure protocol layer such as HTTPS or TLS. The server and the peripheral device seeking connection exchange and verify authentication certificates.
Fulfilling the citizens needs without creating winners and losers. The objectives in the design, implementation and utilization of the internet of things infrastructure in smart cities push to meet market and technological goals missing to fulfil the desires of the citizens in offering the required services. In developed smart cities utilizing internet of things functions to control traffic, parking spaces, offer Wi-Fi connections and smart water systems to the existing infrastructure, the system creates a losers and winners scenario depending on the citizens who access and use the services. In the implementation, the internet of things system is meant to address the shortcoming of the service providers while at the same time setting up a policy that protects the consumers. In such a set-up, the citizens who feel that their interests are not accounted for in the policies for the IoT development feel as the losers and therefore strive to prevent the utilization of the technology.
Project managers, leaders, donors, the government and other private sector organizations involved in the design and implementation of the IoT in smart cities need to form a well-structured public policy that that protects the rights, freedom and interests of the citizens living in the city and who are bound to use the new technology with their existing infrastructure.
The smart city management should involve the citizens, more so the marginalized, in cases where there are cultural diversities in the design and co-creation of the internet of things system and infrastructure.
Open data sharing limitations. Development of the internet of things system in the smart cities depends on the quality and quantity of data shared. This data is divided into citizen data and infrastructure data. The use of open data program that is not considered private and confidential by the cities and infrastructure maintainers and the citizens tries to provide the data to the IoT designers to create a system that meets the expectations of the stakeholders. However, the stakeholders are not willing to expose their data due to the security and privacy concerns. Such data, such as personal data, business and organizational data and system generated data are the basis for the development of a smart city infrastructure that meets the needs of the citizens, business and the organizations involved. Due to the lack of complete understanding of the system, reduced confidence in the system and lack of motivation, the stakeholders do not share the required datasets, Gao et al (2014).
Conclusion
According to Liu et al (2017), There is a need to develop a system that builds and guarantees confidence in the stakeholders to share the required datasets for the design of a smart city suitable to meet the expectations of the city’s inhabitants. These activities would include provision of education and involvement of the citizens on the design and co-creation of the smart city e-services. The stakeholders need to understand what the data they have to share, why they need to share, to who the data is shared to and be given control over the data with the ability to pull out of the open data program in cases where privacy concerns have not been met.
Internet security. Smart cities utilize the internet of things to offer e-services. The data shared or data collected and generated from the physical entities of the IoT is transmitted through the network connections of the IoT infrastructure. The protocols and policies set do not offer 100% security to imminent threats and attacks. These vulnerabilities prevent the smooth implementation of the internet of things in the smart cities across the globe.
Policies need to be set that meet the United Nation’s data protection principles. Such policies include the use of network and data transfer protocols that are not vulnerable to “man-in-the-middle” access. The IoT network should use strong data encryption tools such as the Blowfish cypher to protect that data transmitted within the network.
The topic of integration of artificial intelligence into the utilization of the internet of things in smart cities is a worth research topic. This would include cyber organizations, robotics in the delivery of services such mails and meter-readings.
More research on the reliability and security of networks used as the framework of the internet of things infrastructure. This would increase the impact on the confidence of the stakeholders and increase services through a more advanced data sharing program.
This report exposes the vulnerabilities of the network providing the framework of the internet of things in the smart cities.
The report highlights the challenges facing the smooth implementation of the IoT in cities and offers possible mitigations to enable transition.
The limitation of the research project report is that it does not offer specific solutions to the network vulnerabilities in the integration of cloud computing and the fog domain in the utilization of the IoT in smart cities.
Conclusion.
Internet of things is the next frontier in offering efficient services to the citizens and organizations within a city. This invention creates many engineering challenges in the design, implementation and use of the new technological infrastructure to offer e-services to the people and businesses. These challenges such as data privacy and security that affect the social and economic livelihoods of the stakeholders should be mitigated using new protocols, services and architectures.
References
Hosseinian-Far, A., Ramachandran, M., & Slack, C. L. (2018). Emerging Trends in Cloud Computing, Big Data, Fog Computing, IoT and Smart Living. In Technology for Smart Futures (pp. 29-40). Springer, Cham.
Chiang, M., Ha, S., Chih-Lin, I., Risso, F., & Zhang, T. (2018). Clarifying fog computing and networking: 10 questions and answers. IEEE Communications Magazine, 55(4), 18-20.
Alrawais, A., Alhothaily, A., Hu, C., & Cheng, X. (2017). Fog computing for the internet of things: Security and privacy issues. IEEE Internet Computing, 21(2), 34-42.
Crasta, D. A., Addepalli, S. R., & John, R. (2018). U.S. Patent No. 9,866,491. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Gao, S., Li, Z., Xiao, B., & Wei, G. (2014). Security Threats in the Data Plane of Software-Defined Networks. IEEE Network.
Liu, Y., Chen, H. H., & Wang, L. (2017). Physical layer security for next generation wireless networks: Theories, technologies, and challenges. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 19(1), 347-376.
Zanella, A., Bui, N., Castellani, A., Vangelista, L., & Zorzi, M. (2014). Internet of things for smart cities. IEEE Internet of Things journal, 1(1), 22-32.
Santucci, G. Internet of Things and “Smart” Cities.
Rodolfo Milito, Preethi Natarajan and Jiang Zhu (2010). The internet of things: A survey. Computer networks, 54(15), pp.2787-2805.
Alessio Botta, Walter de Donato, Valerio Persico and Antonio Pescapé (2015). Internet of Things for Smart Cities. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 3(7).
Dalvi, S. A., & Shaikh, M. Z. (2017). Internet of Things for Smart Cities. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 3(7).
Vlacheas, P., Giaffreda, R., Stavroulaki, V., Kelaidonis, D., Foteinos, V., Poulios, G., … & Moessner, K. (2013). Enabling smart cities through a cognitive management framework for the internet of things. IEEE communications magazine, 51(6), 102-111.
Dhumale, R. B., Thombare, N. D., Bangare, P. M., & Gawali, C. (2017). Internet of Things for Smart City.
Andreas Zanella, Nicola Bui, Angelo Castellani, Lorenzo Vangellsta and Michelle Zorzi(2011). Fog computing and its role in the internet of things. In Proceedings of the first edition of the MCC workshop on Mobile cloud computing (pp. 13-16). ACM.
Yiliang Liu, Hsiao-Hwa Chen and Liangmin Wang (2010). Internet of Things (IoT): A vision, architectural elements, and future directions. Future generation computer systems, 29(7), pp.1645-1660
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