Acculturation Strategies: How Do People Acculturate?
Discuss about the Predicting Levels of Latino Depression.
The most widely used definition of acculturation is ‘‘those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups. Under this definition acculturation is to be distinguished from assimilation, which is at times a phase of acculturation’’ (Zamboanga & Szapocznik, 2010). Although this definition of acculturation identifies assimilation to be only a phase of acculturation, the two terms are sometimes used synonymously (Torres, 2010). Emphasis will be made mostly on this two terms assimilation and acculturation is considered to be most generic and, hence, preferable.
Whereas acculturation as a concept was originally proposed by anthropologists as a group level phenomenon (Ayala et al, S. 2010), early discussions around the concept also recognized it as an individual level phenomenon (Ayala et al, S. 2008). Psychology’s strong interest in the individual has contributed towards the formal use of the term psychological acculturation (coined by Graves, 1967) and making the distinction between individual level changes arising from acculturation and those taking place at the group level. The working position is that individual human behavior interacts with the ecological and cultural contexts within which it occurs, there is a need to keep the group and individual levels distinct. This distinction is essential because the kinds of changes that take place at the two levels (i.e., group and individual) are often different (Sam & Berry, 2010).). Not every group or individual enters into, participates in, or changes in the same way during their acculturation. Vast individual differences in psychological acculturation exist, even among individuals who have the same cultural origin and who live in the same acculturative arena (Nauck, 2008)
Two issues are identified, the first is the degree to which people wish to maintain their heritage cultures and identities; the second is the degree to which people wish to have contact with those who are outside their group and participate with them in the daily life of the larger society. Preferences with respect to these two issues lead to the adoption of four different acculturation strategies that Berry terms assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization. These strategies depend on the extent to which the individual balances the two issues of culture maintenance and contact.
Assimilation is the strategy used when individuals do not wish to maintain their cultural identity and seek close interaction with other cultures (or in some cases adopt the cultural values, norms, and traditions of the new society). The separation strategy is defined by individuals who place a high value on holding on to their original culture and avoid interaction with members of the new society. The integration strategy is used by individuals with an interest in maintaining one’s original culture while having daily interactions with other group there is some degree of cultural integrity maintained, while at the same time they seek, as a member of an ethno cultural group, to participate as an integral part of the larger social network. The marginalization strategy is defined by little possibility or lack of interest in cultural maintenance (often for reasons of enforced cultural loss) and little interest in having relations with others (often for reasons of exclusion or discrimination).The four strategies are neither static, nor are they end outcomes in themselves.
Kinds of Changes at Group Level and Individual Level
What kinds of changes may occur at the group level as a result of acculturation? First, physical changes may occur: a new place to live, a new type of housing, increasing population density, urbanization, more pollution, etc., are all common with acculturation. Second, biological changes may occur: new nutritional status and new diseases (often devastating in force) are common. Third, political changes occur, usually bringing the non-dominant groups under some degree of control, and usually involving some loss of autonomy. Fourth, economic changes occur, moving people away from traditional pursuits toward new forms of employment. Fifth, cultural changes (which are at the heart of the definition) necessarily occur: original linguistic, religious, educational, and technical institutions become altered, or imported ones take their place. Sixth, social relationships become altered, including intergroup and interpersonal relations.
At the individual level there are two phenomena of interest. First, numerous psychological changes occur. Changes in behavior are well documented in the literature
(Berry, 2008); these include values, attitudes, abilities, and motives. Such changes are referred to as behavioral shifts For example, existing identities and attitudes change and new ones develop: personal identity and ethnic identity often shift away from those held prior to contact (Rudmin, (2009), and views about how (and whether) one should participate in the process of acculturation emerge (Hwang & Ting 2008). other attitudes (such as intergroup attitudes and lifestyle preferences) also change and develop during acculturation
When discussing how well people adapt during acculturation, the interest is in the long-term outcome of psychological acculturation (Berry, 2008). Adaptation is not synonymous with
Acculturation, but it follows from the change it is proposed that there are different strategies of adaptation that lead to different varieties of adaptation (as an outcome). For the individual, three such strategies have been identified (Berry, 2008).These has been termed adjustment reaction and withdrawal and may be defined in the following way. In the case of adjustment, changes in the individual are in a direction which reduces the conflict (that is, increases the congruence or fit) between the environment and the individual by bringing a person into harmony with the environment. In the case of reaction, changes are in a direction which retaliates against the environment; these may lead to environmental changes which, in effect, increase the congruence or fit between the two, but not by way of group or individual adjustment. In the case of withdrawal, change is in a direction which reduces contact with the environment; in a sense, it is removal of the group or individual from the adaptive arena, and can occur either by forced exclusion or by voluntary withdrawal.
Long-term Outcome of Psychological Acculturation
In close, the acculturation theory is a significant culture and psychology phenomenon that
should continue to be discussed within pan- cultural discourse. The acculturation theory has
exposed researchers to psychological concepts such as acculturative strategies, acculturative stress, self-esteem, body image, depression, and cognitive perceptions that have provided researchers with the tools to make valid and reliable predictions regarding an individual affectivity, behavior and cognition
Gaps in acculturation
Despite the many social, psychological, and legal benefits of acculturation research
mentioned above, there are some areas of research that the acculturation theory fails to analyze.
Berry’s acculturation model/ theory in its original form doesn’t strategically analyze the
acculturation processes experienced by mixed ethnic group individuals, referring to individuals
who have biological parents of different cultural heritages (Berry, J. W., & Sabatier, C. 2010). Moreover, the acculturation theory fails to systematically explain the acculturation process experienced by orphans, as orphans are constantly exposed to an institutional cultural atmosphere, despite ongoing physical contact with children of different cultural backgrounds. Secondly, the acculturation theory is unable to explain the process in which mainstream ethnic majority individuals experience assimilation, marginalization, separation, or integration when it comes to specific cultural practices/ values such as body image values (Smokowski, 2008). In relation to this point it is evident that some individuals of the dominant cultural group may not want to adhere to specific cultural practices or ideals associated with their culture, and this in turn may lead to a quasi-form of marginalization which the acculturation theory is not prepared to explain. Thirdly, the acculturation theory doesn’t provide an explanation for the development /formation of new cultures (Berry, 2008) that may result from the ongoing physical contact between individuals of different cultural groups.
Future acculturation research should focus on modifying and expanding Berry’s original acculturation theory, in order for the acculturation theory to be successfully applied to different research contexts as discussed in the previous paragraph. The acculturation theory/ phenomenon formulated by John Berry has provided researchers with a pan- cultural research tool for carrying out reliable and valid cross- cultural research.
Assimilation is not the most preferred or common way of acculturating, and the adaptations tend not to be the most positive when it is pursued. As argued by (Berry, 2010), alternative strategies exist to counter the homogenizing influences and changes that might occur from increased globalization, including resistance to or withdrawal from contact and the development of novel or innovative ways of living together. These various consequences of contact and acculturation need to be further explored and monitored by research over the coming years. Although we have an understanding of what the distinct types of acculturation strategies are and of their consequences, it appears that little is known about the antecedents that is, what predicts individuals to want to maintain their own and others’ cultural identity (and adopt different types of acculturation strategies). Furthermore, there is a lack of multilevel studies that integrate society level characteristics and individual-level characteristics in understanding acculturation. Ideally, such research should be both longitudinal and comparative. Only longitudinal research can engage the process of cultural and psychological change that lies at the core of the process of acculturation. And only comparative research can understand the global pattern of response to increased intercultural contact and the consequent acculturation. Moreover comparative research designs require the sampling from societies where most acculturation is now taking place (but where little research has actually been done). These include the largest domestic intercultural settings of China, India, and Russia,and those involving diasporas of refugees and sojourners in various regions of Africa, the Gulf States, Pakistan, and West Asia. Only when sufficient information is available from these intercultural cauldrons will we be able to provide a comprehensive picture of the acculturation experience and its outcomes.
Three Adaptation Strategies
References
Ayala, G. X., Baquero, B., & Klinger, S. (2008). A systematic review of the relationship between acculturation and diet among Latinos in the United States: implications for future research. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 108(8), 1330-1344.
Berry, J. W. (2008). Globalisation and acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(4), 328-336.
Berry, J. W., & Sabatier, C. (2010). Acculturation, discrimination, and adaptation among second generation immigrant youth in Montreal and Paris. International journal of intercultural relations, 34(3), 191-207.
Berry, J. W., & Sabatier, C. (2011). Variations in the assessment of acculturation attitudes: Their relationships with psychological wellbeing. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(5), 658-669.
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Chirkov, V. (2009). Critical psychology of acculturation: What do we study and how do we study it, when we investigate acculturation?. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(2), 94-105.
Hwang, W. C., & Ting, J. Y. (2008). Disaggregating the effects of acculturation and acculturative stress on the mental health of Asian Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(2), 147.
Lopez-Class, M., Castro, F. G., & Ramirez, A. G. (2011). Conceptions of acculturation: A review and statement of critical issues. Social science & medicine, 72(9), 1555-1562.
Rudmin, F. (2009). Constructs, measurements and models of acculturation and acculturative stress. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(2), 106-123.
Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2010). Acculturation: When individuals and groups of different cultural backgrounds meet. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 472-481.
Satia, J. A. (2010). Dietary acculturation and the nutrition transition: an overview. Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism, 35(2), 219-223.
Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237
Smokowski, P. R., Rose, R., & Bacallao, M. L. (2008). Acculturation and Latino family processes: How cultural involvement, biculturalism, and acculturation gaps influence family dynamics. Family Relations, 57(3), 295-308.
Torres, L. (2010). Predicting levels of Latino depression: Acculturation, acculturative stress, and coping. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(2), 256.
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