Processing of Rice Syrup
Rice syrup is an organic sweetener produced by fermenting cooked rice. Rice syrup can be produced from brown rice, whiter rice or approved organic rice. Rice syrup is a substitute for refined table sugar and non-natural sweeteners and is commonly listed as an ingredient for most of the processed foods. Two tablespoons of rice syrup have 110 calories and 25 grams of sugar. Thus it should be taken temperately. Rice syrup comprises a few trace materials such as magnesium, zinc, and manganese (Hojsak et al., 2015). Rice syrup is usable in cooking and as a general sweetener. It is vegan, as opposed to honey, and can be used as an alternative to it. Its glycemic index (GI) is 98 which is much higher than that of sugar. Thus diabetic patients should cautiously include it in their controlled carbohydrate intake. The food industry has incorporated rice syrup into most of the foods owing to the increasing health awareness on the harmful effects of sweetened foods with refined sugar (Lin, Xiao, Liu, Liu, Li, & Yu, 2013).
Studies have shown that chronic illnesses such as myocardial infarction, diabetes, and high blood pressure have prompted the search for a substitute for processed table sugar (Hojsak et al., 2015). Nutritionists promote the use of natural sweeteners as alternatives to processed sugar. Rice syrup or brown rice syrup is an example of such a natural sweetener and is usually incorporated in processed foods as one of the ingredients. Studies have classified rice syrup as a nutritive sweetener, unlike saccharin and aspartame. It is also used as a sweetener for multiple drinks, in beverages like coffee and tea. Moreover, it is listed as an ingredient in most of the consumable sweet syrups, bakery foods, pastries, cakes, health drinks, and dairy products among others.
Rice syrup is produced by first choosing whole grain rice which can be white or brown rice and then smashing it into particles of approximately 10 to 60 mesh. The smashed rice particles are then liquefied with a water slurry using an enzyme preferably alpha-amylase enzyme at 30 to 100 degrees Celsius. The enzymatic reaction should not exceed sixty minutes so as to avoid the formation of unwanted flavors. The wet slurry is then saccharified using glucosidase enzyme or in combination with a relative amount of amylase enzyme to generate a solid mixture. The saccharified outcome is later clarified incompletely to eliminate rice fibers leaving significant elements of dietary value such as vitamins, proteins among others in the resulting incompletely clarified product which is then concentrated to 80% solids. As observed, the rice syrup can be dried to generate a dried syrup, or it can be left in the liquefied state, but both countries have relatively the same nutritional value. Both the liquefied and dried rice syrup sweetener can be used in multiple food products or stored for other uses (Lin, Xiao, Liu, Liu, Li, & Yu, 2013).
Corn syrup is made from corn starch such as feedstock using under multiple enzymatic reactions, and has glucose as the primary ingredient, whereas rice syrup is produced by culturing cooked rice with enzymes. Brown rice syrup has a high glycemic index of 98 whereas corn syrup has a glycemic index (GI) of 100, and a high fructose corn syrup has 25 (Augustin et al., 2015).
Differences between Corn Syrup and Rice Syrup
The inclusion of rice syrup as an alternative sweetener in foods has been applauded and critiqued from different quarters. Organic brown rice syrup does not contain gluten and is therefore appropriate for vegetarians. The syrup produces 75 calories for each tablespoon, unlike table sugar which produces 42 calories for one tablespoon. The rice syrup contains some minerals such as phosphor, magnesium and 7% protein. It also contains B vitamins such as B6 which are essential for hair growth, nails and mental development (Neacsu, & Madar, 2014). However, recent studies have critiqued rice syrup due to its adverse effects on health. A survey conducted by Hojsak et al. (2015) showed that arsenic levels in rice products such as infant formula, energy drinks, and cereals that were consumed by endurance athletes were much higher than the accepted optimal amount of 10 parts per billion (ppb). The study found out that food products which had listed rice syrup as a sweetener had excessive amounts of arsenic levels. For instance, cereal bars with organic brown rice syrup contained 23 to 128 ppb; a single energy drink had 84 ppb among others. Studies have shown that arsenic which is found in soil and water is readily absorbed by rice more than other plants (Karagas, Punshon, Sayarath, Jackson, Folt, & Cottingham, 2016). The FDA observed that this takes place irrespective of whether the rice is organically or conventionally grown. The accumulation of arsenic in the body has been associated with chronic diseases such as heart diseases and cancers. Additionally, arsenic affects children by lowering their IQ (Naujokas et al., 2013).
Rice syrup has a GI of 98, which is far higher than the recommended standard of 20. Studies have indicated that the consumption of foods with high GI leads to chronic diseases such as obesity. The study by Schulte, Avena, and Gearhardt (2015) found out that the intake of foods with high GI cause’s blood sugar and insulin to rise and fall fast leading to hunger and cravings. The increased appetite for sweetened foods and drinks negatively affects the immune system thus making the body vulnerable to illnesses. Therefore, based on the recent studies it is clear that rice syrup is equally harmful to human health because as much as it is organic, it has undergone processing.
Food regulations for the food industry are forms of laws that define the implementation and enforcement of legislation. The objective of food regulations is to ensure that food sold to consumers are fit for human consumption and meet the set thresholds. For example, The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) is responsible for inspection services and regulations on food production, and the quality of health products for animals and plants. The agency also enforces the health and safety rules on the Food and Drugs Act and Safe Food for Canadians Act (CFIA, 2018).
Rice Syrup and Human Health
Source: (Kulma & Szopa, 2007).
Tyrosine is acquired from the proteins in the diet and is transported from the blood to the central nervous system (brain). The formation of catechols takes place in a series of steps with each of them being dependent on a particular enzyme which catalyzes that step. Enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase is the one that limits the rate of formation in the pathway because it controls the overall rate of formation of norepinephrine and dopamine (Goldstein, 2010).
Tyrosine hydroxylase catalyzes the rate-hindering step in catecholamine synthesis
Tekin, Roskoski, Carkaci-Salli, and Vrana (2014) elucidates that tyrosine hydroxylase inhibition is determined by the level of catecholamines in the nerve terminal, thus forming a negative feedback process. The synthesis of Alkylcatechols also affects the rate of cell firing. For instance, during the activation of the neurons and firing at a high rate, like in stressful situations, tyrosine hydroxylase would be triggered. These sophisticated processes facilitate dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurons to regulate their rate of forming neurotransmitters meticulously.
Once Alkylcatechols have been formed in the body they are stored in the synaptic vessels from which they are later released and transported by the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT). The VMAT are utilized by the catecholaminergic neurons to move neurotransmitter molecules from the cell cytoplasm to the inner parts of the synaptic vesicles. Vesicular storage is beneficial because it provides a way of releasing a predetermined amount of neurotransmitter, and it also safeguards the neurotransmitter from deprivation by enzymes secreted in the nerve terminal (Barroso-Chinea et al., 2016).
Alkyl catechols are significant natural Nuclear factor-erythroid 2 two p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activators, and Nrf2 is inactive in the absence of its co-factors (Senger, Li, Jaminet, & Cao, 2016). Inflammation is the prevalent characteristic of most chronic disorders and complication but is essential in carcinogenesis. Inflammation is an intricate mechanism that takes place when tissues are infected or wounded by irritants or pathogens. However, it can also be as a result of different diseases. Researchers have shown that Nrf2 plays a critical role in the anti-inflammatory process by influencing the recruitment of inflammatory cells and controlling gene manifestation via the antioxidant response element (ARE). The Kelch-like ECH-associated protein (Keap 1), /Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway, is responsible for the central control of the anti-inflammatory gene manifestation and halts the progression of inflammation (Ahmed, Luo, Namani, Wang, & Tang, 2017).
As demonstrated in figure below, during basal conditions, Nrf2 connects to its repressor Keap 1 which results to ubiquitination trailed by proteasome scarcity. Under oxidative stress, free Nrf2 relocates to the nucleus, where it associates with the subjects of the minor Mat family and links to ARE genes, e.g., HO-1. The HO-1 that is up-controlled catalyzes the heme into free iron, bilirubin, and CO. the CO plays the role of an inhibitor of the NF-kB pathway which results to the diminished manifestation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, whereas bilirubin behaves like an antioxidant. Moreover, HO-1 expressly hinders the proinflammatory cytokines in addition to stimulating the anti-inflammatory cytokines, thus resulting to the equilibrium of the inflammatory process (Ahmed, Luo, Namani, Wang, & Tang, 2017).
Food Regulations for Food Industry
Source: (Ahmed et al., 2017)
Studies have demonstrated the useful role of Nrf2 in mitochondrial function. Nrf2 plays a vital role in the regulation of the mitochondrial membrane potential and the existence of substrates for respiration and metabolism of synthesis. The study by Dinkova-Kostova and Abramov (2015) demonstrated that the activation of Nfr2 regulated the manifestation of ATP metabolism subunit proton conductance of the internal mitochondrial membrane to lower superoxide development. The unavailability of Nrf2 lowers the levels of NADPH which further stimulate minimal conversion of oxidized to low glutathione which leads to a shift to an oxidized state of the cells and ultimately to inflammation and cell death (Ku & Park, 2017). Nrf2 plays a critical function in mitochondrial biogenesis. Zhang, Wu, and Klaassen (2013) showed that livers without Nrf2 have far less amount of mitochondrial DNA unlike in wild-type cells. Nrf2 also affects transcription co-activators which have a vital role in provoking protein breakdown during mitochondrial biogenesis (Lai et al., 2014). Studies have also indicated that Nrf2 is significant in the regulation of mitochondrial integrity during inflammation and oxidative stress. Sulforaphane activates Nrf2 which then safeguards mitochondria (Dinkova-Kostova, & Abramov, 2015). Nrf2 is likely to influence the control of mitophagy, a process through which destroyed mitochondria is eliminated through the control of autophagosomal degradation (Ashrafi & Schwarz, 2013). Based on the findings of the preceding studies, it can be resolved that Nrf2 plays a vital role in mitochondrial regulation, as demonstrated in the diagram below.
Source: (Holmström, Kostov, & Dinkova-Kostova, 2016)
The consumption of Alkylcatechols can be attained through the intake of vegetables and fruits. However, there exist different proposals on the number of polyphenols to be consumed on a daily basis. A study conducted by Zamora-Ros et al. (2013) recommended the intake of large amounts of polyphenols to increase longevity. The study suggests a daily intake of 650 mg per day. On the other hand, research recommends the consumption of large amounts of fruits and vegetables as much as possible as long as it does not lead to weight gain or affect the program of weight loss (Landete, 2013).
Food regulations in Canada are governed by the Food and Drug Agency. Some of the provisions include Agriculture and Agri-food Canada (AAFC) which plays a role in developing policies that regulate agriculture production, research, and the governing of animals and plants. The consumer packaging and labeling Act ensures that the packaging, labeling, promotions, sale, and importation of products don’t have any falsehood (CFIA, 2018).
The Food and Drug regulations outline the criteria for labeling and drug and food composition. The safe food for Canadians Act is responsible for valuing food products through inspection, advertisements and labelling, the creation of standards for the products, providing licenses to those eligible for production, importation and distribution of the foods, and the provision of the criteria to be met for the establishments of food production settings (CFIA, 2018).
There exist several distinct differences between medicinal marijuana and non-medicinal or recreational cannabis. The chemical content between the two forms of cannabis differs, the medical cannabis contains elevated levels of CBD which do not make someone feel the ‘high’ state which is common in recreational marijuana as a result of the presence of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC is the active compound in marijuana that makes one feel high. Most of the species grown for medicinal purposes have high CBD levels but with a lower level of THC. This adds a therapeutic benefit to the medical weed. The other significant difference between medicinal and non-medicinal cannabis is the legal age (Hall & Weier, 2015). In order to buy medicinal cannabis from a licensed dispensary, one must be over 18 years, but most states have set the minimum age at 21 years. However, those willing to purchase recreational cannabis from a certified dispensary must be aged 21 years and above. There also exists a legal distinction between the two forms of cannabis. For instance, in Canada one must have a recommendation from a physician to buy medicinal marijuana whereas any other use is it for recreational is regarded as illegal (Bridgeman & Abazia, 2017).
The production of cannabis-infused beverages requires the consideration of several factors that pertain to legislation on food and safety policies. A company that wishes to produce cannabis-infused drinks should first consider storage and sanitation. The business must ensure that it has sufficient room at any phase of production such as at marijuana kitchen, during transportation, labeling and packaging, etc. the storage should also have enough lighting and air conditioning. Moreover, the room should have security precautions and only accessed by designated individuals who must also be over 21 years of old (NEHA, n.d.).
The company should also consider the collection and testing methods that are important for food safety. The sample taken for laboratory testing must be representative and similar techniques of testing. This is critical because the provided quantity for the contents of medicinal marijuana must be exact to avoid further side effects. The organization should also set up a protocol for products that fail and documenting validation requirements. The laboratory testing should examine the potency, homogeneity, residual pesticides, and primarily the cannabinoids (NEHA, n.d.).
Another factor worth considering is the state’s legislation on the sale and distribution of cannabis. The business should have the capacity to trace and track the production, packaging, sale, receipt, and distribution of marijuana. All security measures necessary should be installed such as security alarms. Labeling and packaging is another factor that has to be considered. All the significant food information should be disclosed during labeling and is accessible to customers. The organization should also reveal the right age bracket allowed to purchase the products (NEHA, n.d.).
It is also important to consider the general regulations that govern the legalization of cannabis in each state. This is because the legislation varies, for instance, some states have legalized both medicinal and recreational marijuana but restricted to age 21 and above, whereas other states have only legalized medicinal marijuana and thus any other is deemed illegal. The company should also consider whether cannabis-infused products are allowed and in what quantity (NEHA, n.d.).
The market price of cannabis in Canada varies depending on the state and whether it is medicinal or recreational. However, the price ranges from $6 to 13 dollars for both forms of marijuana.
Cannabinoids namely THC and CBD, are the natural compounds found in marijuana and have been found to have neuroprotective qualities. Cannabis has also been found to be influential in the cure for Alzheimer’s disease because some compounds in cannabis can go through the blood-brain barrier which hinders the entry of injuries substance like some pharmaceuticals typically. This enables the cannabinoids to associate with the compound receptors in the brain, an aspect that is significant in the treatment of Alzheimer’s. Multiple studies have been carried out on the effectiveness of compounds found in cannabis in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. The research by Currais, Quehenberger, Armando, Daugherty, Maher, and Schubert (2016) aimed at ascertaining the effect of cannabinoids like THC on the beta-amyloid; a chemical substance which accumulates in the brain at the initial stages of Alzheimer’s disease. The authors reported that some cannabinoids could eliminate the beta-amyloid, implicating that early intervention is likely to minimize the risk of developing the disorder. Additionally, the study by Currais et al. (2016) indicated that exposing beta-amyloid proteins to THC, lowered the beta-amyloid levels, halted the inflammatory response from the nerve cells triggered by beta proteins and permitted the nerve cells to develop.
Aso, Sánchez-Pla, Vegas-Lozano, Maldonado, and Ferrer (2015) explored the possible effect of THC and CBD on mice that had manifested Alzheimer’s symptoms and showed that cannabinoids aided in the enhancement of learning and reduced amyloid clumps. The study concluded that the combination of CBD and THC resulted in an improved therapeutic impact compared to when the compounds are independently used, and supports the utilization of drugs that are cannabis-induced in the effective treatment of Alzheimer. Van Den Elsen et al. (2015) also found out that cannabis was effective in the treatment of symptoms dementia, of which Alzheimer’s disease is an example. Cannabis was able to improve the moods of the patients and reduce worry.
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