Hunter gatherers and subsistence
Discuss about the Social Networks And Cooperation In Hunter-Gatherers.
“We wear clothes, and speak, and create civilizations, and believe we are more than wolves. But inside us there is a word we cannot pronounce and that is who we are.”
The above quoted lines of Anthony Marra from his famous work “A Constellation of Vital Phenomena” gives an overview of the notion which the majority of the people hold about the human civilization in the present times. The human civilization grew thousands of years ago and has undergone a considerable amount transformation since that particular time (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). It is a reflection of this particular fact that the human beings no longer follow the same practices or the way of life which they used to have thousands of years (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). This particular change can be seen as a reflection of the changing nature of the human intelligence and also the way the human beings perceive the world around themselves in the present times (Stieglitz et al., 2012). Therefore, it is seen that the human beings are no longer cave dwellers or live the life of the nomads the way they used to live thousands of years ago (Stieglitz et al., 2012). However, the success as well as the change attained by the human beings within the span of last thousand years when viewed through the perspective of the entire human civilization would seem to be just a façade in the true sense of the term (Spengler et al., 2014). It is significant to note that inspite of all the advancements made by human beings in the various walks of their lives there are particular sets of peoples like the “hunter-gatherers, tropical horticulturalists, or pastoralists” and others who still in the present times lead their lives in the traditional fashion of the nomads and had to take the help of various kinds of adaptations in a bid to sustain themselves (Stieglitz et al., 2012). This essay will discuss about these set of people and the various subsistence strategies used by them for the purpose of their survival. Furthermore, the essay will also talk about the gender relations as well as “religious beliefs and practices” within their group.
The hunter gatherers are the individuals who depend on hunting as the main source of their subsistence (Apicella et al., 2012). It is significant to note the process of hunting for the various hunter gatherers is not only a source of subsistence for them but also a form of pleasure which takes the majority of leisure time (Apicella et al., 2012). These individuals generally like to live in the woods or on the outskirts of the forests and take a great amount of pleasure in the various kinds of hunting activities (Apicella et al., 2012). In the opinion of many people the various activities related to hunting is a not just a means of survival for them but a source of pride for them (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). It is significant to note that the various hunter gatherers take a lot of pride in the kind of hunting skills which they posses and the concept of hunting have become a part of identity (Apicella et al., 2012). In the opinion of many scholars the various hunter gatherers have undergone a unique adaptation which is in synchronization with the environment in which they dwell for the purpose of their survival in the wilderness (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015).
Tropical horticulturalists and subsistence
The tropical horticulturalists are the individuals who for their subsistence depend of the crops or the vegetables which they cultivate in their own garden or any plot of land (Loponte et al., 2017). In the opinion of many people the various tropical horticulturalists are the individuals who even in the modern times inspite of all the innovations as well as the advancements in the various fields of technology live the way the various primitive men used to live depending on just the produce of the land for the purpose of their subsistence (Loponte et al., 2017). In addition to these, the various tropical horticulturalists do not even take the help of the various modern forms of technology available in the agricultural field and produce the exact of food which is required for their subsistence (Stieglitz et al., 2012). Therefore, in a way it can be said that the various tropical horticulturalists of the present times represent a small community of the primitive men who are residing within the framework of the modern civilization of the human beings and occupy a very small part of it (Loponte et al., 2017).
The pastoralists, on the other hand, are the sheep or the cattle who are found in the various diverse parts of the world (Spengler et al., 2014). However, it is seen that the nation of Australia has become very famous in the recent times for the large number of pastoralists which it has. Furthermore, the various pastoralists are the individuals who depend on the products or the services derived from the animals or the cattle which they rear (Spengler et al., 2014). In the present times it is seen that the various kinds of transactions which these individuals do the various members of their own community are in terms of the cattle or the sheep which they rear (Fernández-Giménez & Estaque, 2012). Therefore, it would be apt to say that the various sheep as well as the cattle they for the purpose of their subsistence form an integral part of their lives and the entire lacuna of their lives is centered round them (Fernández-Giménez & Estaque, 2012). Thus, many scholars are of the opinion that the various pastoralists are in a harmonious relationship with the natural world or more precisely the animal world and in a way both the entities derive mutual benefits from the process (Fernández-Giménez & Estaque, 2012).
Pastoralists and subsistence
The various social organizations like the gender relations, religious beliefs as well as practices, political organization, “system of exchange”, kinship and others form an important part of not only the modern society but also of the world of these individuals who are living on the outskirts of the human civilization (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). It is significant to note that these social organizations are the factors which determine not only the lifestyle of these individuals also the means which they adopt for the process of their subsistence (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). It is true that these individuals even in the present times follow the pattern of lives lead by the primitive men yet these social organizations have made a significant contribution to their lives (Stieglitz et al., 2012).
The community of the hunter gatherers follows the various precepts of the lives of the nomadic or the primitive people and it is a reflection of this particular fact that the community of the various hunter gatherers in the diverse parts of the world is a male dominated one (Skoglund et al., 2012). Thus, the male members of the community are imbued with the role of hunting and all other important activities whereas the women of the community are related to all kinds of background roles like looking after the children, cooking the meat brought by the male members of the family and others (Skoglund et al., 2012). It is significant to note that these individual live by the rules of nature and therefore they do not believe in the concept of education (Allen & Jones, 2016). However, they do receive a bare minimum amount of education about the various skills which are required during the time of hunting and the other kinds of related activities which are provided only to the male members of the community and not to the female members of the community (Erlandson, 2013). Another significant part of the lives of these individuals is the lack of the religious belief which these people have towards the various religions of the world (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). Furthermore, it is also seen that some of these hunter gatherers also worship various kinds of pagan Gods mostly related to the forest and warfare (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). Therefore, it would be apt to say that they are the prototype of the primitive men in the modern day civilization of the human beings.
Social organizations
In the community of the tropical horticulturalists, on the other hand, it is usually seen that there is a reduced level of gender discrimination and as such there is no major distinction between the male and the female members of the community (Stieglitz et al., 2012). It is significant to note that both the male as well as the female members share the burden of the cultivation of the crops as well as the vegetables depending on their capabilities as well as skills (Stieglitz et al., 2012). Furthermore, the women in this particular community are not just restricted to the various household choirs and in a way it can be said that they enjoy a considerable amount of freedom within this particular community which is rarely enjoyed by women in any other community of the contemporary world (Loponte et al., 2017). In the present times it is generally seen that these people are taking the help of the various kinds of recent technology for the purpose of the cultivation of the crops as well as vegetables and furthermore the process of education is not restricted just to the male members of the community as seen in the other communities. It is significant to note that these people in a way can be said to be semi-religious people and they follow the various traditional beliefs as well as practices of the religion of Christianity (Loponte et al., 2017). However, even in this particular community it is seen that the individuals worship and perform offerings to the various pagan Gods related to the sphere of agriculture (Anderson, 2016).
In the community of the pastorals, on the other hand, it is generally seen that although the power difference between the two genders is not that much prominent yet the major important roles are delegated to the male members of the community (Fernández-Giménez & Estaque, 2012). It is significant to note that the male members of the community are delegated with the role to feed the cattle, perform the various transactions related to the cattle and other important choirs (Fernández-Giménez & Estaque, 2012). However, the female members of the community are delegated with the role of feeding the cattle and the sheep, cleaning them and various related activities (Spengler et al., 2014). In the present times it is seen that these people are taking the help of the various kinds of modern forms of cattle rearing and also the tool of education for the development of their community (Spengler et al., 2014). However, it is generally seen that for the purpose of education the male members of the community receive priority over the female members of the community (Spengler et al., 2014). The majority of the household choirs are performed by the female members of the community. The religious beliefs which these individuals are mostly based on the ancient precepts of the religion of Christianity (Spengler et al., 2014). In addition to this, the various individuals belonging to this particular community also indulge in the worship of the various kinds of pagan Gods and it is generally seen that these individuals also indulge in various kinds of animal sacrifices as well (Spengler et al., 2014).
Hunter gatherers and social organizations
Conclusion
To conclude, even though the world in the present times has undergone much transformation yet it is generally seen that there are various entities within the modern civilization who live within the framework of the modern civilization still following the various norms of the primitive men itself. Some of the typical examples of these types of individuals are the various hunter gatherers, tropical horticulturalists, pastoralists and others. It is significant to note that these individuals have undergone a kind of symbiotic relationship with the environment in which they live for the purpose of their subsistence. Furthermore, it is generally seen that the various social organizations related to the communities to which they belong are very rudimentary in nature and not on par with the social organizations which are normally seen in the contemporary human civilization.
References
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Anderson, E. N. (2016). Stephen Beckerman and Roberto Lizarralde: The Ecology of the Barí: Rainforest Horticulturalists of South America. Human Ecology, 44(3), 393.
Apicella, C. L., Marlowe, F. W., Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2012). Social networks and cooperation in hunter-gatherers. Nature, 481(7382), 497.
Bettinger, R. L., Garvey, R., & Tushingham, S. (2015). Hunter-gatherers: archaeological and evolutionary theory. Springer.
Chazdon, R. L. (2014). Second growth: the promise of tropical forest regeneration in an age of deforestation. University of Chicago Press.
Erlandson, J. M. (2013). Early hunter-gatherers of the California coast. Springer Science & Business Media.
Fernández-Giménez, M. E., & Estaque, F. F. (2012). Pyrenean pastoralists’ ecological knowledge: documentation and application to natural resource management and adaptation. Human Ecology, 40(2), 287-300.
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