The General Structure of Neurons
Nervous system is the main regulatory, controlling and communicating system of human body. It conducts all the mental activities like memory and learning (Cantile and Youssef). The report aims at discussing general structure if neurons in the nervous system, functions of CNS, reflex arc and contribution of brain in learning and memory.
The cells present in the nervous system are known as neurons. They send and receive signals to the brain. The axons are special projections in neurons which are responsible for sending chemical and electronic signals to other cells. These motions could also be received by root like extensions called dendrites (Allen and Lyons). The main parts of neurons consist of the following:
Axons: It is a long tail like structure and joins the body of neurons with structure called axon hillock. Myelin is a fatty substance which defends numerous axons. Myelin assists axons in transferring electrical indications (Cantile and Youssef).
Dendrites: These are fibrous root like structure that comes out from the head of neurons. They are receptors of the electric signals.
Synapses: On the dendrites and cell bodies of other neurons, neuron-to-neuron associates are formed. Information is transmitted from the first neuron, to the target neuron through these links, which are known as synapses.
The flow of information starts from dendrite to the soma and then to the axon. Axon them transmits information in the form of signals to terminal buttons and then finally it transmits it to synapse.
The chemical messengers of the human body are usually mentioned as neurotransmitters. They are the chemicals which the nervous system utilizes to direct and receive information amongst neurons as well as among neurons and muscles (Butt, Bradley and Sills). Neurotransmitter transfer information between synapses in the form of chemicals. The discharge of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic cell is activated whenever a nerve impulse passes down an axon and hits the axon terminal. Neurotransmitter molecules penetrate the synapse and connect to postsynaptic cell membrane sensors, generating an excitatory synaptic signal (Cantile and Youssef).
Figure: Structure of neuron
Source: (Vergnolle and Cirillo)
CNS is central nervous system which comprises of spinal cord and nerves in the brain. PNS is peripheral nervous system involves peripheral nerves. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is among the body’s two main nervous system mechanisms. The PNS manages action and reactions with the central nervous system (CNS) through transmitting signs through one part of the human body to another. CNS consists of brain, spinal cord and brain stem. PNS includes sensory neurons like ganglia as well as connector neurons which interconnect the CNS and other neurons. If PNS does not function properly or does not exist in human body, CNS will not be able to receive any sensory information (Waxenbaum, Reddy and Varacallo). This will make CNS impossible to react to external changes in environment. Sensory receptors perceive variations in the interior and exterior environments in the sensory nerves of the PNS. Afferent sensory nerves transmit this information to the CNS. Indications are conveyed back to the PNS over efferent peripheral nerves after data dispensation in the CNS. 32
Figure: CNS and PNS
Source: (Encyclopedia and system, 2022)
Reflex arc is sensory and neural mechanism which regulates a reflex. This is vital in generating involuntary reaction which is vital to prevent injury in a person. Interneurons communicate with motor neurons that regulate muscle activity, while sensory neurons could also interact directly with motor neurons (He et al.,). Reflex arcs safeguard human muscles from overextension during stretching reflexes, and they also protect the body from injury throughout withdrawal response to stimuli.
How does the Structure of the Brain Influence Memory and Learning?
The part of the brain which is involved in learning and memory are cerebellum, amygdala, prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Declarative, periodic, and recognition memory are all related with the hippocampus. The cerebellum is linked with the processing of procedural memories like learning in what way to play the piano. In order to remember semantic tasks, the prefrontal cortex appears to be involved. Hippocampus is involved in spatial and recognition memory (Edelmart). Another function of the hippocampus is to transfer information to cortical regions which provide interpretation to memories and link them to other memories. This also assists with memory formation, which is the process of moving novel information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
Amygdala is involves in memory storage and implicit memories are created with the help of cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. This includes motor learning, procedural memory as well as classical conditioning (Edelmart). 33
Figure: Parts of the brain
Source: (Carter)
References
Allen, Nicola J., and David A. Lyons. “Glia as architects of central nervous system formation and function.” Science 362.6411 (2018): 181-185.
Butt, Mark T., Alys Bradley, and Robert Sills. “Nervous system.” Toxicologic Pathology. CRC Press, 2018. 1093-1132.
Cantile, Carlo, and Sameh Youssef. “Nervous system.” Jubb, Kennedy & Palmer’s Pathology of Domestic Animals: Volume 1 (2016): 250.
Carter, Rita. The brain book: An illustrated guide to its structure, functions, and disorders. Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 2019.
Edelmart, Gerald M. “Building a picture of the brain.” The brain. Routledge, 2017. 37-70.
Encyclopedia, M., & system, C. (2022). Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia Image. Medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 17 April 2022, from
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/imagepages/8679.htm.
He, Ke, et al. “An artificial somatic reflex arc.” Advanced Materials 32.4 (2020): 1905399.
Vergnolle, Nathalie, and Carla Cirillo. “Neurons and glia in the enteric nervous system and epithelial barrier function.” Physiology 33.4 (2018): 269-280.
Waxenbaum, Joshua A., Vamsi Reddy, and Matthew Varacallo. “Anatomy, autonomic nervous system.” (2019). 1093-1132.
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