Encapsulation Process within TCP/IP Model
1:
When an Email is send by the source using the TCP, the data arrive at the transport layer where the data encapsulation protocol begins. The end result will depend on the information handle by the TCP or PDU. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol where the data is a successful deliver at the receiving host. The data that has been received from the application layer, TCP divides that data into multiple segments and to each segments a header is attached. The header of the segment contain the ports of the sender and the recipient, ordering information of the segment and field of data, which is also known as checksum. On both the hosts of the TCP protocols the checksum data is used and determine that the data transferred is with error or without error. In order to establish a connection through TCP, the segments are used by TCP that determine whether the host who will be receiving is ready for the data to receive. The sending TCP establishes a connections on the host who will be receiving, that sends a SYN segment to the running peer TCP protocol. The TCP that is receiving returns an ACK segment and acknowledge the segment receipt successfully. There is another ACK segment that the sending TCP sends. Such control information that exchange is referred as three-way handshake.
The PDU protocol is connectionless. The message received from the application layer is taken by the PDU protocol. It then format into UDP packets. In each of the packet of the PDU a header is attached in which there is a host port for sending and receiving, a checksum and a field with packet length. The packet then send by the sending PDU process to the peer PDU process where the host can receive it. Through application layer it can be determine that packet was receive by the receiving PDU process. There is no notification requires for the receipt by the PDU. Moreover, the three-way handshake is not used by the PDU.
2:
The formula known to us is bit rate = Bandwidth*log (1+SNR)
It is given that, Bandwidth = 7 x 10^6
SNR = 64
Hence bit rate = 7 x 10^6 log (65) = 7 x 6. 022 x 10^ 6 = 42.154 Mbps
The Shannon formula gives us 42.154 Mbps, the upper limit. For better performance we choose something lower, 32 Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels.
32 Mbps = 2x 1 MHz x log L
L = 65536
Hence the signal level is 65536
3:
The comparison of baseband and broadband transmission are as follows.
The baseband transmission uses digital signalling rather than single wire and it is either in form of light or electrical pulse. The overall bandwidth is occupied by digital signal that is used in baseband transmission. This is used to transmit an individual data signal. The communication emerging through baseband is bidirectional that allows computer devices to use single cable for sending and receiving data. However, in baseband communication, the data that is sent and received cannot happen at the same time and at the same wire. The multiplexing is the process used by baseband transmissions to transmit multiple digital signals on a single wire. The baseband communication uses time division multiplexing where channels are divided into multiple time slots. The time division multiplexing does not changes the working of baseband transmission, it only changes the way data is used in cable.
Approximate Bit Rate and Signal Levels Calculation
The broadband transmission uses analog signals which is in the form of electromagnetic waves or optical rays rather than multiple frequencies of transmission. The transmission media is split into two channels that is used for sending and receiving signals. There are two cables which are used in broadband to separately send and receive data transmission. The broadband communication uses frequency division multiplexing where multiple channels in a broadband system are created. The broadband media is allowed in this multiplexing process to accommodate traffic that goes in different directions at the same time on an individual network media.
The baseband transmission works best with bus topology whereas broadband transmission uses bus and tree topology. The encoding use din broadband communication is Manchester and differential Manchester encoding whereas in broadband communication, PSK encoding is used.
The broadband transmission is efficient for short distances whereas baseband transmission is efficient for long distances. Hence, both are efficient for different purposes.
4:
The difference between the ipv6 compatible and the mapped addresses are provided below:
IPv4 (normal legacy internet protocol) uses A (address) records in DNS. IPv6 (the next generation protocol capable of supporting everyone and everything that wants to get internet access) uses AAAA records. It’s possible, and quite common, for a system to obtain IPv6 DNS records over IPv4 and then communicate directly with a host on IPv6. Since DNS is hierarchical, it is not necessary that all DNS be directly accessible via IPv6 since intermediate DNS servers can proxy and cache queries. However, the addresses that are capable of holding IPv4 address and can represent the IPv4 nodes as the IPv6 addresses for the applications that have the IPv6 addressing enabled in them. This allows the application to deal with addresses of the IPv6 format only. They make use of the AF_INET6 sockets for this purpose and also the communications for the applications are done over the IPv6v networks. The TCP/IP stack is assigned with the task of transformation of the address. The IPv6 addresses generally have the 80 bits long addresses.
In addition to this, it should also be noted that the IPv6 does not have any specific hardware requirement. IPv6 is a protocol, so compatibility with IPv6 networking is mainly a software or firmware issue. The introduction of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in the routing and IP address allocation for the Internet, and the extensive use of network address translation (NAT) has delayed the IPv4 address exhaustion however, NAT can be used to use existing IPv4 address by a large number of devices and the transformation takes place slowly.
5:
Distributed Hash Table (DHT) is a kind of dictionary service distributed over the network which has an access to a shared key>value data store. This keys are distributed over the nodes containing great scalability and performance. It has a mapping interface with two main operations that are put (key, value) and get (key). The put function will be storing value over the network. The get function will retrieve those values that are stored at certain key. Distributed Hash Table (DHT) is mainly used for their scalability.
Baseband vs Broadband Transmissions Comparison
DHT is used as a structured overlays in Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network. It stores and retrieve the efficiency of the data. In the network of DHT P2P, every node has a Globally unique identifier (GUID) and for the distributed data, this node functions as a container. The P2P network is maintain through a decentralized operations of DHTs. P2P applications are the true applications that uses DHT. Due to the scalability of the system, the functions are fine with large node count and traffic.
Chord has a ring topology. It uses one finger table with consistent hashing.
Figure 1: Chord network in the form of ring like routing geometry
Source: (Stoica et al., 2018)
In the figure 1, Chord network has 3 nodes with values 6, 1, 2. The key space size is three bits with a node IDs leading with a range staring from 0 till 7. In Chord protocol DHT is used as an algorithm which is completely based on key or value pairs. As seen in the network overlay, the P2P network id represent client as the key and data as value that are stored over the nodes. However, in the Chord protocol, all the key are stored as a subset for each nodes so that the network reliability increases. In multiple services including the distributed information lookup services, Chord can be implemented accordingly. While designing Chord certain things were considered. With the growing size of the network the function of the system was efficient which indicates that the system is Scalable. In some situation the nodes fail or it may happen that the system even function during network partitions. This means the availability of the system is fine. With the use of DHT algorithm, Updatability increases which means data can be easily updated. The operation of Load-Balanced has key or value pairs that are distributed evenly in the system. Based on the proximity, data are fetched from the query originating node were the search value is stored. The design of Chord do not render the network partitions. In each node the Chord maintains a table of location. The function of the table is like a cache that contains the recent nodes. The routing table is basically a cache in which the identifiers of the node are map with respect to the ports and the IP-addresses. Thus, in the whole process of Chord protocol works though a DHT algorithm.
6:
The client need to either know the IP address in which they will be sending the port number. The client first sends the port number to the server, the server checks the address whether it matches with the IP address of the server, if not the server rejects the address send by the client stating that the address does not match server address. The client then again send another IP address to the server one after the other until it matches one IP address.
The client first make a request for the connection. For that a particular port number will be bound by the server which is a listening process only for the server. Here only the server will be listening to the connection that is incoming. There is no need of binding with the client side. The server than keep on checking with the port number. At this point connect () request will be send by the client. The server then will accept the request by using the function accept (). When the server cannot used same port number for the process of sending and listening as the previous port that is send, the server is still listening to it for the new connection. The point at which the server accept the request of the client then and there the kernel decide to allocates a port number that is random for the server for the process of sending and receiving using the function send and receive. The server if wanted to find what port the client has to receive, the answer to it is simple. The client will think of sending the segment of TCP with a source port. Another way in which the client can find the IP address or the port number is that if they know the server name and then decide to use the DNS which is the Domain Name System and try to map the name with the IP address. The next thing is that for the corresponding server process, the client has to know what the port number is. Thus, in this way the IP address and the port number will be easily found by the client that has to insert in the address of the remote socket.
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