The Impact Of Cultural Diversity On Team Performance In USA Tech Companies In Ireland

Background

The proposed research topic is “The impact of cultural diversity on team performance: Based on the USA tech companies in Ireland’’. In this section of the assignment, the reasons of selecting this topic are explained.

The globalization of world is turning the workplace culture and the workforce around the world. Many people are crossing borders to work in another country and their culture are being carried. As a result, the different cultures contribute to generate the diversity in societies and organizations (Moran and Harris, 2007). Today, many studies show that organizations use diverse teams to increase productivity and creativity. Different nationalities are working together to complete tasks. In this research, as stated by Cletus et al., (2018), the cultural diversity is encompassed demographic (nationality, race…) and the performance is considered as creativity, innovation or problem solving.

Ireland Foreign Direct Investment policy creates a good environment for investors to have operations in Ireland because of the low corporation tax rate (12.5%), an educated workforce that the 30–34-year-olds with a third level qualification is 55.4%, compared to an EU average of 40.3% and the hourly labour costs are mid-range in Europe and below the Euro Area average
in business economy sectors. (IDA, Facts About Ireland Report, 2021)

Almost 900 US companies are in Ireland and more than 190,000 employees are working in these US companies. (American Chamber of Commerce Ireland, US-Ireland Business Report, 2022) and the immigrants in Ireland make up 16.6% of total workforce. (CSO, Labour Force Survey Quarter 4, 2021).

In this research, I would like to ask people, who are working with a team in any the USA tech companies based on in Ireland, the questions about the impact of cultural differences on the team performance. The performance is related to creativity, problem solving or innovation. These questions were developed according to the related studies in existing literature.

• How many people are there in your team?
• If you are working with people who has different culture, what kind of cultural differences have you been facing?
• Do you think that cultural diversity or differences impact on the team performance? If you say yes, do these differences impact on the team performance negatively or positively?
• Do you think cultural diversity is necessary for teams?

The diversity within workplace is seen as double-edged sword. On one hand, it is thought that diversity causes conflicts or misunderstandings between team members but on the other hand, many studies’ results show that when differences come together in one group, creativity and productivity increases. (Carter and Phillips 2017; Van Knippenberg and Schippers 2007; Williams and O’Reilly 1998). The purpose of this research is to understand how cultural diversities impact on the team performance that is related to being creative, innovative or problem-solving. There are many people from different culture are working together as a team in US tech companies in Ireland. According to the existing studies about the showing the impact of cultural differences on team performance, I would like to investigate how these differences affect the team performance. One of the related studies is:

“…In culturally diverse teams different people bring different knowledge-sets and perspectives to a company (Williams and O’Reilly 1998), have broader information, and share a larger knowledge basis for creative solutions to problems (Van Knippenberg and Schippers 2007). The integration of culturally diverse resources of knowledge, perspectives, experiences, and ideas enables team members to gain new insights and create innovative solutions (Gibson et al. 2014; Lisak et al. 2016; Maznevski and Chui 2013). At the same time, cultural diversity can suppress team creativity through the negative social processes it engenders (Leung and Wang 2015). Cultural diversity especially poses challenges to communication (Lu et al. 2018), and misunderstandings based on differing implicit cultural assumptions arise more frequently.” (Granow and Asbrock, 2021).

Research Questions

The aim of this research is to establish a relationship between the cultural diversity and its impacts on the team performance taking the context of the USA tech companies that operates in Ireland.

• To explore the different factors that contribute to cultural diversity in the workplace
• To investigate contingencies that positively influences the team performance
• To examine the process and methods through which cultural diversity impacts the team performance for USA tech companies in Ireland

Today, as it mentioned before many companies have operations in Ireland and especially US tech companies are choosing Ireland to invest because of willingness of having advantages of investment policy of Irish Government and the high qualified educated population (Cunningham, Collins and Giblin, 2020). They recruit so many people from different nationalities that are living in Ireland. Those people are working as a team to get tasks done. The teams are diverse and people are behaving the extent to which their cultures teach. Many studies have been completed according to the cultural differences impact on the team performance. Brox and Krieger (2019) opined that the team performance is linked to the individual’s ability to adopt with different cultures and how they work together efficiently to solve problems or be innovative.

The problems of congregation of individuals from multiple countries often results in conflicts and problems that arises due to the differences in the cultural backgrounds (Pitafi et al., 2018). It should also be noted in this regard that the basic notion of teamwork is based on the shared principles and cooperation which is prevented. However, for organizations it is necessary for their employees to collaborate and work together for the achievements of the organizational goals and objectives (Kaiser, Patras and Martinussen, 2018). Hence, this research intends to contribute to the development of academic literature as well as explore the interesting facets of human relationships that are leveraged in the organizational workplace for better professional relationships thereby contributing to the growth and development of the companies.

Chevillard (2021) stated that many international students have been educated in Ireland recently and because of the lack of job opportunities or the cost of living of their own countries, they prefer staying in Ireland to work as a professional. It is obviously expected that they could have challenges when they start to work with others in a team. These challenges could affect the performance of team negatively or positively. This research topic is chosen to show potential employees what kind of difficulties they could deal with and how their culture impacts the team performance. At the end of this research, they could be more aware of the advantages and disadvantages of working with different nationalities in a team, how much team performance is important for organizations and the extent to which cultural differences impact the team performance.

In this research, firstly the meanings of team, diversity and culture are discussed, then the cultural diversity is defined as surface-level diversity as race, ethnic, nationality and age.

The teams are the integral part of an organization and actual agents who complete the tasks that are performed by the business organization (Chen and tang, 2018). However, the cultural diversity of the teams enables development of interpersonal relationships between the employees in the workplace (Gomez and Bernet, 2019). As stated by Dillard et al., 2021, the race, age, religion, nationality and other demographic factors are responsible for shaping the perceptions and formation of beliefs and attitudes of the individuals. These beliefs, attitudes and behaviours are responsible for influencing the workplace culture and professional relationships as well. The attitudes and beliefs also influence the creativity and problem-solving capabilities of the team (Kwan, Leung and Liou, 2018). Hence, the interrelationships inform the development of conceptual framework linking the diversity of the team with the performance of the team.

Literature Review

In organizations, because of globalizations they are using teams to get results and they expect teams to be more creative and focused on problem solving. According to this research topic, the people who are a member of a team in the US tech companies in Ireland are going to be questioned and the difficulties and advantages of working with different nationalities, the impact of culture diversity based on demographic characteristics on a team performance are going to be researched. Basically, the considered framework could be below:

 

Figure 1. A basic framework of cultural diversity in a team and its impact on the team performance

In this part of assignment, the meaning of a team and its role in organizations and the performance of a team are discussed in the first part. In the second part, the meaning of both culture and diversity and finally the impact of the cultural diversity on team performance is discussed.

The literature defines a team as “a team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they are mutually accountable” (Katzenbach, J.R. and Smith, D.K. (1993) ‘The discipline of teams.’, Harvard Business Review, 71(2), page 112)

Teams have being used in organizations recently when tasks are more complicated, either workplace environment is more stressful and ambiguous or the capacity of individual is not enough for the task. (Salas, Cooke and Rosen, 2008)

In literature, there are so many studies about team types in organizations. Sundstorm, De Meuse and Futrell (1990) defined four different types: 1) advice-involvement, 2) production-service, 3) action-negotiation and 4) project-development. After this study, Cohen and Bailey (1997) divided teams into four segments as project team, traditional work team, parallel team and management team. In the early 2000s, De Dreu and Weingart (2003) researched all existing literature about team types and then they developed new types for teams that are named as project teams, production teams, decision making teams and mixed teams. (Hollenbeck, Beersma and Schouten, 2012)

Even if all teams are called by different names, their role is a considerable amount of important in organizations. According to the research:  

“Teams have been defined as small groups of interdependent individuals who share responsibility for outcomes, and team-based structures play an increasingly important role in organizations (Ilgen, 1999). Longitudinal surveys of Fortune 1000 firms have shown a steady increase in the use of team-based structures, from less than 20 percent in 1980 to roughly 50 percent in 1990 to over 80 percent in 2000 (Garvey, 2002)” (Hollenbeck, J.R., Beersma, B. and Schouten, M.E. (2012) ‘Beyond Team Types And Taxonomies: A Dimensional Scaling Conceptualization For Team Description.’, Academy of Management Review, 37(1), page 82)

“The experience of organisations using teamwork has shown that effective use of teams can bring significant improvement in productivity, creativity and employee satisfaction (Colenso, 2000). In support of this, Katzenbach and Smith (1993) summarise the advantages of teamwork:

– Teams bring together complementary skills and experience that exceed those of any individual on the team. This fact enables teams to respond to multifaced challenges like innovation, quality and customer service.

Methodology

– In jointly developing clear goals and approaches, teams establish communications that support real-time problem solving and initiative.

– Teams provide a social dimension that enhances the economic and administrative aspects of work.

– Teams have more fun.” (Castka, P. et al. (2001) ‘Factors affecting successful implementation of high performance teams’, Team Performance Management, 7, page 124)

Team performance is defined as a multiple process that shows up as team members start to carry out individual and team-level tasks and teamwork processes. The concept of team effectiveness is attributed the input-process-output (IPO) system which is formulated by McGrath. (Kozlowski and Ilgen , 2006). According to this system, inputs are defined as :

“…inputs refer to the composition of the team in terms of the constellation of individual characteristics and resources at multiple levels (individual, team, organization). Processes refer to activities that team members engage in, combining their resources to resolve (or fail to resolve) task demands.. Output has three facets: (a) performance judged by relevant others external to the team; (b) meeting of team-member needs; and (c) viability, or the willingness of members to remain in the team (Hackman, 1987)” (Kozlowski, S.W.J. and Ilgen, D.R. (2006) ‘Enhancing the Effectiveness of Work Groups and Teams’, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7(3), p.79)

According to Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952)  culture means:

“Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artefacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other as conditioning elements of further action.” (Kroeber,A.L., Kluckhohn,C. (1952) Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions, Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum, p. 181)

Walsham (2002) defined culture basically as shared symbols, norms and values in a social entire like a country. On the other hand, culture is defined the collective programming of mind differs from a member of a group of people than others. (Hofstede, Culture and Organizations, 1980)

Diversity is used to describe so many differences between people and the general definition is made “ any attribute that another person may use to detect individual differences’’ (Phillips, K. and O’Reilly, C. (1998) ‘Demography and Diversity in Organizations: A Review of 40 Years of Research’, in Research in Organizational Behavior, p. 81) But like as culture, many studies have difficulties to describe diversity. Differences among people could be different because of social-category features (age, race, language, gender, religion…), knowledge (education, training, experience…), in values or beliefs (cultural background, ideological beliefs), personality differences, organizational status differences or in social and network ties. For example, “ McGrath et al. (1995) created the following five diversity categories: (a) demographic attributes; (b) task-related knowledge, skills, and abilities; (c) values, beliefs, and attitudes; (d) personality and cognitive and behavioral styles; and (e) status in the work group’s organization.” (Mannix, E. and Neale, M.A. (2005) ‘What Differences Make a Difference?’, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 6(2), page 36)

Expected Outcomes

Cultural diversity is defined by Cox (1991) as “ the representation, in one social system, of people with distinctly different group affiliations of cultural significance”. (Cox Jr, T., 1991. The multicultural organization. Academy of Management Perspectives, 5(2), pp.34-47.)

Furthermore, culture diversity could be defined as differences in race, ethnicity, language, nationality, religion and sexual orientation within a community. If an organisation is described as culturally diverse, it means the groups have different culture. (Jain and Parek, 2019)

Culturally diverse team is described as a group whose members are working together in order to achieve the common goal but those are different from each other in cultural norms, beliefs and values. Many studies show that cultural diversity impacts on a team performance positively as others indicate small negative effect on the performance. (Granow and Asbrock, 2021).  

According to Harrison cultural diversity is divided into two segments: Surface-level and deep level diversity. Surface level diversity is described as differences between team members in demographic features such as race, religion, age, sex etc. Deep-level diversity means differences in values, perspectives, and cognitive frameworks. (Harrison, 2002) In this research, cultural diversity is considered as a surface-level differences. Some researchers like Cox, Lobel and McLeod or Hoffman or Levy agree that the surface-level diversity has a positive effect on creativity or innovation of teams and others like Guzzo and Dickson or Brewer or Cummings say that diversity is harmful for group effectiveness. (Phillips, K. and O’Reilly, C. ,1998).

Cultural diversity in the workplace defines the attitudes, belief system and behaviours of the members of the team (Wang et al., 2019). These behaviours are the tools which are used and integrated for the performance of the team tasks and achieve the objectives. The performance of the team is determined by the extent of customer satisfaction, output, ability of the team to achieve the objectives (Ayega and Muathe, 2018). Hence, the team diversity and cultural inclusiveness of the team defines the spirit of the team and its ability to perform the individual tasks which are required and expected by the organization. As stated by Elia, Petruzzelli and Piscitello (2019), the team performance is contingent upon several factors such as commitment of the members, cohesiveness, information sharing qualities and others. These qualities of the team performance are very personal and individualistic in approach. The homogeneity of the members defines the capability to achieve the goals through processes such as consensus in the decision-making process which improves the productivity and output of the team (Groysberg et al., 2018). Therefore, the cultural diversity of the team improves the team performance through defining the basis on which activities like sharing of information, cohesiveness, communication and other factors are improved.

 Moran, R.T., Harris, P.R. and Moran, S.V. (2007) Managing Cultural Differences. 7th edn. Elsevier (Global Leadership Strategies for the 21 st Century). Available at:

https://mimccomwinter2017.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/114649891/_Robert_T._Moran_Philip_R._Harris_Sarah_V._Moran_Bookos.org_.pdf.

Migrants number in Ireland (no date). Available at:

https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-lfs/labourforcesurveyquarter42021/tables/.

US-Ireland Business  (2022). Available at:

https://static1.squarespace.com/static/60376ea4e1793824e9ff3217/t/621cb8af924da4185d7e53ad/1646049481221/1592+USIRL22_report+digital.pdf.

IDA (2021) Invest in Ireland. Available at: https://www.idaireland.com/newsroom/publications/ida_facts_about_ireland_2021.pdf.

Phillips, K. and O’Reilly, C. (1998) ‘Demography and Diversity in Organizations: A Review of 40 Years of Research’, in Research in Organizational Behavior, pp. 77–140. Available at:

Conclusion

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234022034_Demography_and_Diversity_in_Organizations_A_Review_of_40_Years_of_Research

Granow, M. and Asbrock, F. (2021) ‘A framework for culturally diverse teams and the importance of agility: findings from a qualitative study.’, International Studies of Management & Organization, 51(1), pp. 47–68. Available at:

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=150283924&site=ehost-live.

1-What is a team and its role in organizations?

Castka, P. et al. (2001) ‘Factors affecting successful implementation of high performance teams’, Team Performance Management, 7, pp. 123–134. doi:10.1108/13527590110411037.

E Hollenbeck, J.R., Beersma, B. And Schouten, M.E. (2012) ‘Beyond Team Types And Taxonomies: A Dimensional Scaling Conceptualization For Team Description Academy of Management Review, 37(1), pp. 82–106. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=69705782&site=ehost-live.

Katzenbach, J.R. and Smith, D.K. (1993) ‘The discipline of teams.’, Harvard Business Review, 71(2), pp. 111–120. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=9308065089&site=ehost-live.

Salas, E., Cooke, N.J. and Rosen, M.A. (2008) ‘On Teams, Teamwork, and Team Performance: Discoveries and Developments’, Human Factors, 50(3), pp. 540–547. doi:10.1518/001872008X288457.

Kozlowski, S.W.J. and Ilgen, D.R. (2006) ‘Enhancing the Effectiveness of Work Groups and Teams’, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7(3), pp. 77–124. doi:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00030.x.

Lebrón, A. (2013) ‘What is Culture?’, 1(6), pp. 126–132. Available at:

https://meritresearchjournals.org/er/content/2013/July/Lebr%F3n.pdf.

Phillips, K. and O’Reilly, C. (1998) ‘Demography and Diversity in Organizations: A Review of 40 Years of Research’, in Research in Organizational Behavior, pp. 77–140. Available at:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234022034_Demography_and_Diversity_in_Organizations_A_Review_of_40_Years_of_Research.

Walsham, G. (2002) ‘

Mcross-Cultural Software Production And Use: A Structurational AnalysisMIS Quarterly, 26(4), pp. 359–380. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=8737325&site=ehost-live.

Hofstede, G. (1980) ‘Culture And Organizations.’, International Studies of Management & Organization, 10(4), pp. 15–41. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=5812910&site=ehost-live.

Mannix, E. and Neale, M.A. (2005) ‘What Differences Make a Difference?’, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 6(2), pp. 31–55. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=19185511&site=ehost-live.

Kroeber,A.L., Kluckhohn,C. (1952) Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions, Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum, p. 181

Granow, M. and Asbrock, F. (2021) ‘A framework for culturally diverse teams and the importance of agility: findings from a qualitative study.’, International Studies of Management & Organization, 51(1), pp. 47–68. Available at:

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=150283924&site=ehost-live.

Cox Jr, T., 1991. The multicultural organization. Academy of Management Perspectives, 5(2), pp.34-47.

Jain, T. and Pareek, C. (2020) ‘Managing Cross-Cultural Diversity: Issues And Challenges.’, Global Management Review, 14(2), pp. 23–32. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=152727375&site=ehost-live.

Harrison, D. et al. (2002) ‘Time, Teams, and Task Performance: Changing Effects of Surface- and Deep-Level Diversity on Group Functioning’, Academy of Management Journal, 45, pp. 1029–1045. doi:10.2307/3069328

Phillips, K. and O’Reilly, C. (1998) ‘Demography and Diversity in Organizations: A Review of 40 Years of Research’, in Research in Organizational Behavior, pp. 77–140. Available at:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234022034_Demography_and_Diversity_in_Organizations_A_Review_of_40_Years_of_Research.

Full Reference of Peer Reviewed Text: Watson, W.E., Kumar, K. and Michaelsen, L.K. (1993) ‘Cultural Diversity’S Impact On Interaction Process And Performance: Comparing Homogeneous And Diverse Task Groups.’, Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), pp. 590–602

(e.g. what is my research question? why select this text? does the Critical Analysis of this text fit into my investigation with a wider focus? what is my constructive purpose in undertaking a Critical Analysis of this text?)

My research question is: The impact of cultural diversity on a team performance: Based on US tech companies in Ireland. In this text, the cultural diverse team and culturally homogeneous teams were studied for 17 weeks. In order to understand the impacts on the team performance. In this text, cultural diversity defined as ethic and national differences. Furthermore, the performance was described as an ability of problem-solving.  This text is a quite similar to my research question and  I wanted to make a critical review because of they studied 17 weeks on these groups.

(e.g. theoretical, research, practice, policy? are there links with other types of literature?)

The text is a research paper and they have different hypothesis for new formed diverse and long-term diverse teams’ effects on the performance. They collected data to measure the performance  and  have different results for each groups.

1. a) How clear is it which project the authors are undertaking? (e.g. knowledge-for-understanding, knowledge-for-critical evaluation, knowledge-for-action, instrumentalism, reflexive action?)
2. b) How does the sort of project being undertaken affect the research questions addressed? (e.g. investigating what happens? what is wrong? how well does a particular policy or intervention work in practice?)
3. c) How does the sort of project being undertaken affect the place of theory? (e.g. is the investigation informed by theory? generating theory? atheoretical? developing social science theory or a practical theory?)
4. d) How does the authors’ target audience affect the reporting of research? (e.g. do they assume academic knowledge of methods? criticize policy? offer recommendations for action?)
5. What is being claimed?
6. a) What are the main kinds of knowledge claim that the authors are making? (e.g. theoretical knowledge, research knowledge, practice knowledge?)

1. How clear are the authors’ claims and overall argument? (e.g. stated in an abstract, introduction or conclusion? unclear?)

It is clear in the conclusion and in the beginning.

With what degree of certainty do the authors make their claims? (e.g. do they indicate tentativeness? qualify their claims by acknowledging limitations of their evidence? acknowledge others’ counter-evidence? acknowledge that the situation may have changed since data collection?)

They supported their claims by data analysis but they are also aware that the groups members are students and they are not from the real organizations.

1. How generalized are the authors’ claims – to what range of phenomena are they claimed to apply? (e.g. the specific context from which the claims were derived? other similar contexts? a national system? a culture? universal? implicit? unspecified?)

 2. To what extent is there backing for claims?

1. What, if any, range of sources is used to back the claims? (e.g. first hand experience? the authors’ own practice knowledge or research? literature about others’ practice knowledge or research? literature about reviews of practice knowledge or research? literature about others’ polemic?)

2. If claims are at least partly based on the authors’ own research, how robust is the evidence? (e.g. is the range of sources adequate? are there methodological limitations or flaws in the methods employed? do they include cross-checking or ‘triangulation’ of accounts? what is the sample size and is it large enough to support the claims being made? is there an adequately detailed account of data collection and analysis? is a summary given of all data reported?)

3. To what extent are claims consistent with my experience?

4. What is my summary evaluation of the text in relation to my review question or issue?

5. How convincing are the authors’ claims, and why?

6. How, if at all, could the authors have provided stronger backing for their claims?

It is related to my question but the problem is they just focused on nationality. I would like to research age, sex, religion’s effects on the team performance. Also their interviewers were student , my plan is to have an interview with people who are working with different cultures.

6. References

(No date). Available at: Piña, M.I.D., Martínez, A.M.R. and Martínez, L.G., 2008. Teams in organizations: a review on team effectiveness. Team Performance Management: An International Journal.

‘Gibson, C.B. and Gibbs, J.L., 2006. Unpacking the concept of virtuality: The effects of geographic dispersion, electronic dependence, dynamic structure, and national diversity on team innovation. Administrative science quarterly, 51(3), pp.451-495.’ (no date). Available at:

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2189/asqu.51.3.451?casa_token=SmocQ3IA6hAAAAAA:KmQKIpjAAej1dxdcXpWCdwbaR3SSo_GQ_xbU46r78G3EJfnyDYXuVIX-xClR_ZMNQC0Ab3IJjGYHNQ.

Ayega, E.N. and Muathe, S., 2018. Critical review of literature on cultural diversity in the work place and organizational performance: A research agenda. Journal of Human Resource Management, 6(1), pp.9-17.

Bing, J.W. (2004) ‘Hofstede’s consequences: The impact of his work on consulting and business practices.’, Academy of Management Executive, 18(1), pp. 80–87. Available at:

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=12689609&site=ehost-live.

Bishop Smith, E. and Yuan Hou (2015) ‘Redundant Heterogeneity and Group Performance.’, Organization Science, 26(1), pp. 37–51. Available at:

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=109512750&site=ehost-live.

Brox, E. and Krieger, T., 2019. Birthplace diversity and team performance. ZEW-Centre for European Economic Research Discussion Paper, (19-020).

Buengeler, C. and Den Hartog, D.N. (2015) ‘National diversity and team performance: the moderating role of interactional justice climate.’, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(6), pp. 831–855. Available at:

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=100521326&site=ehost-live.

Castka, P. et al. (2001) ‘Factors affecting successful implementation of high performance teams’, Team Performance Management, 7, pp. 123–134. doi:10.1108/13527590110411037.

Census of Population 2016 – Profile 11 Employment, Occupations and Industry in Ireland (no date). Available at:

https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cp11eoi/cp11eoi/lfnmfl/.

Chen, C. and Tang, N., 2018. Does perceived inclusion matter in the workplace?. Journal of Managerial Psychology.

Chevillard, G., 2021. Training, Migration and Retention of Doctors: Is Ireland a Danaides’ Jar?; Comment on “Doctor Retention: A Cross-sectional Study of How Ireland Has Been Losing the Battle”. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 10(10), pp.658-659.

Cletus, H.E., Mahmood, N.A., Umar, A. and Ibrahim, A.D., 2018. Prospects and challenges of workplace diversity in modern day organizations: A critical review. Holistica–Journal of Business and Public Administration, 9(2), pp.35-52.

Cunningham, J.A., Collins, P. and Giblin, M., 2020. Evolution of Ireland’s Industrial, Science and Technology Policy. Annals of Science and Technology Policy, 4(2), pp.80-210.

Dahlin, K.B., Weingart, L.R. and Hinds, P.J. (2005) ‘Team Diversity and Information Use.’, Academy of Management Journal, 48(6), pp. 1107–1123. Available at:

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=19573112&site=ehost-live.

Delarue, A. et al. (2008) ‘Teamworking and organizational performance: A review of survey-based research.’, International Journal of Management Reviews, 10(2), pp. 127–148. Available at:

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=31849149&site=ehost-live.

Devine, D.J. et al. (1999) ‘Teams in Organizations: Prevalence, Characteristics, and Effectiveness’, Small Group Research, 30(6), pp. 678–711. doi:10.1177/104649649903000602.

Dillard, V., Moss, J., Padgett, N., Tan, X. and Kennedy, A.B., 2021. Attitudes, beliefs and behaviors of religiosity, spirituality, and cultural competence in the medical profession: A cross-sectional survey study. Plos one, 16(6), p.e0252750.

Dunphy, D.C. and Bryant, B. (1996) ‘Teams: Panaceas or Prescriptions for Improved Performance?’, Human Relations, 49(5), pp. 677–689. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679604900507.

Elia, S., Petruzzelli, A.M. and Piscitello, L., 2019. The impact of cultural diversity on innovation performance of MNC subsidiaries in strategic alliances. Journal of Business Research, 98, pp.204-213.

Ely, R.J. and Thomas, D.A. (2001) ‘Cultural Diversity at Work: The Effects of Diversity Perspectives on Work Group Processes and Outcomes.’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 46(2), pp. 229–273. Available at:https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=5305372&site=ehost-live.

Fisher, J. (2001) ‘Cultural diversity: an exercise in elaboration.’, Human Resource Development International, 4(2), pp. 263–274. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=4647659&site=ehost-live.

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