Overview of postcolonial literature
The above quoted lines of J. Nozipo Maraire from her famous work “Zenzele: A Letter for My Daughter” published in the year 1996 provides an overview of the primary reason why the many of the writers of the present times are increasingly turning towards the genre of Postcolonial Literature. The entire genre of Literature just like the other aspects of the modern day would has undergone a significant amount of transformation in the recent times. For example, one of the earliest written works of English Literature “Beowulf” is concerned with the portrayal of the human deeds as well as the achievements of the legendary war hero Beowulf. However, in the succeeding ages it was seen that other themes like the romanticism, existentialism, modernism, Post-Colonialism and others gained prominence within the cannon of Modern Literature. The genre of Post-Colonial Literature has emerged as one of the most important ones in the modern times and it is generally seen that many authors like J. M. Coetzee, Derek Walcott, Salman Rushdie and others are increasingly taking the help of this particular cannon of Literature to raise the voices which have been suppressed since the traditional times. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Homi K. Bhabha and other preeminent postcolonial critics are of the viewpoint that the genre of Postcolonial Literature is mainly concerned with the representation of the voices of the colonized as well as the marginalized people whose voices since the traditional times have been suppressed by the colonizers and the other dominating members of the human society. The cannon of Post-Colonialism is thus redolent with the various narratives of the atrocities that have been committed by the colonizers against the native people and at the same time the manner in which history has been appropriated to give leverage to the colonizers. This essay will discuss about the themes of post-colonialism, feminism and others in the particular context of Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, J.M. Coetzee’s Foe and Derek Walcott’s Pantomime.
Edward W. Said in his famous work “Orientalism” said that “Every empire, however, tells itself and the world that it is unlike all other empires, that its mission is not to plunder and control but to educate and liberate”. The authors Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin in the book “The Empire Writes Back” take the help of the term Post-Colonial Literature to specifically refer to the Literatures that have been developed from the Commonwealth Literature of the Third World Literatures. Furthermore, the authors try to state the basic aim of the Post-Colonial Literature in the words that “The Labour of producing a counter-discourse displacing imperialism dominative system of knowledge rests with those engaged in developing a critique from outside its cultural hegemony”. It is significant to note that there are various traces of the cannon of Post-Colonialism Literature in the arsenal of Literature since the traditional times. One of the most common examples that is being widely used by the various experts to show that the genre of Post-Colonialism is a very old one refers back to the 16th century England, namely the famous play of William Shakespeare “The Tempest”. In this particular work the relationship which Prospero shares with Caliban and also Ariel clearly indicates the rudimentary existence of the traces of this particular genre of Literature in the cannon of English Literature. However, the genre of Literature under discussion here gained a significant amount of prominence in the wide arena of Literature only in the later part of the 20th century not only with the Great Wars after which the majority of the colonial nations of the world gained their liberation from the colonial yoke but also with the emergence of various writers like Chinua Achebe, J. M. Coetzee, Derek Walcott, Salman Rushdie, Conrad and others who took the help of the various Modernistic and Post-Modernistic techniques to give representation to the voices which since the traditional times have not only been suppressed but at the same time being rebuffed.
Emergence of postcolonial literature in the modern era
As mentioned the genre of Literature has undergone much transformation in the recent times and it is a reflection of this particular fact the literary style of “writing back” has gained a significant amount of prominence in the present times. Thus, it is seen that the many writers of the present times are increasingly turning towards the various classics to derive the main theme or the storyline from there and to present them in the modern day setting. This is sometimes been viewed as “Plagiarism” in the cannon of Literature. One of the novels which have been widely subjected to this particular process is Daniel Defoe’s “Robinson Crusoe” and it is in the light of this particular act on the part of the writers that the term “Robinsonade” has gained popularity in the recent times. Some of the examples of the works which have been composed taking the help of the process of Robinsonade are the anonymous Ashton’s Memorial, The English Hermit by Peter Longueville and The Life and Adventures of Peter Wilkins written by Robert Paltock. Even in the 20th century J.M. Coetzee’s “Foe” and Derek Walcott’s Pantomime are examples of the use of this particular process. It is significant to note that most of these works apart from dwelling on the work of Defoe are at the same time concerned with the representation of the concept of “otherness” as well. Salman Rushdie in this particular context says that the basic idea behind these works and for that matter any other post-colonial work is to represent the genealogical tensions between the colonizers and the colonized.
The masterpiece of Daniel Defoe “Robinson Crusoe” (1719) was based on the famous lines of William Cowper from the poem “The Solitude of Alexander Selkirk” which states that-
“I AM monarch of all I survey;
My right there is none to dispute;
Better dwell in the midst of alarms,
Than reign in this horrible place”
The primary motivation for the novel came from the tale of Alexander Selkirk, a sailor who got in the Pacific Ocean and had spend some 28 years one of the unknown islands until finally he was rescued by the sea traders. In like manner, the novel of Defoe, one of the first novels in English takes the help of epistolary style of writing as well as the didactic and the confessional styles to narrate the story of Robinson Crusoe, the protagonist of the novel who spends 28 years in an unknown island before he is being rescued. A surface level reading of the novel would convince the reader that the work is concerned with presenting the trails as well as the challenges faced by the Crusoe family and their struggle to make both ends meet and at the same time to keep themselves alive during the passage of 28 years. Furthermore, it is seen that the writer himself provides the reader with a picture of the Crusoe who are being content with the things that have been provided to them not only by the island in which they are residing but also by God. Thus, the narrator states that “Those people cannot enjoy comfortably what God has given them because they see and covet what He has not given them. All of our discontents for what we want appear to me to spring from want of thankfulness for what we have”. In addition to this, the work also reveals the various encounters of the Crusoe family with the various cannibals of the island, the animals and others and also provides an interesting narrative of various adventures that the family undertakes. It is a conglomeration of these literary devices as well as incidents which the author uses that the work even in the 21st century is among one of the most read children novels. However, a deeper analysis of the work would reveal the fact that work is redolent with various themes like post-colonialism, feminism, power and language and others.
Themes of postcolonialism, feminism and power dynamics in literature
A close reading of the initial pages of the novel particularly page 5 is likely to reveal several interesting facts. It is interesting to note that at this stage Crusoe states that “After this he pressed me earnestly, and in the most affectionate manner, not to play the young man, nor to precipitate myself into miseries which nature, and the station of life I was born in, seemed to have provided against but could not prevail, his young desires prompting him to run into the army, where he was killed; and though he said he would not cease to pray for me, yet he would venture to say to me, that if I did take this foolish step, God would not bless me, and I should have leisure hereafter to reflect upon having neglected his counsel when there might be none to assist in my recovery”. This section has traditionally been interpreted in post colonial terminology and intends to provide the initial motivations for the colonizers which propelled them to stay and use the resources of the native countries. For example, Crusoe justifies this particular aspect by saying that it is the will of the God and that He said decided that Crusoe should make the savage island his new home. It is with this particular idea that Crusoe not only undertakes to make this island his new home but at the time undertakes the process of civilizing the natives as well. However, at another point of the novel he says that “I beckoned him again to come to me, and gave him all the signs of encouragement that I could think of; and he came nearer and nearer, kneeling down every ten or twelve steps, in token of acknowledgement for my saving his life”. The act of undertaking the civilization of Friday has obvious post colonial interpretations and broadly can be seen as the process used by the colonizers to dominate the natives of the colonies. He describes the process in his words as “I began to speak to him, and teach him to speak to me, and first, I made him known his name should be Friday”.
The novel “Foe”, on the other hand, by J. M. Coetzee published in the year 1986 is generally seen as an extension of the novel “Robinson Crusoe” of Defoe or a written response to it. The novel extending the storyline of “Robinson Crusoe” of Defoe introduces the character of Susan Barton into the plot of the novel of Defoe. In the novel Barton is presented as a cast away character who has lost her daughter in the mutiny of the ship in which she and her daughter are travelling. Thus, after being separated from her daughter she is being marooned on the island in which Crusoe and his family are residing and she continues the search for her lost daughter even on the island. It is significant to note that she stays on the concerned island only for a year and after that they are being rescued. However, even after coming back to England she continues the search for her lost daughter and urges Defoe to write about her experiences and her journey. She even enters into a relationship with Defoe so that he complete the narrative of her experiences on that island but after continuous periods of convincing Defoe just agrees to add a chapter dedicated to her experiences on the island. At the end of the novel it is seen that a girl who claims to be the lost daughter of Barton surfaces and it is at this particular point of time that the novel ends. Commenting on the journey and the hardships that Barton had faced at the island she says that “When I reflect on my story I seem to exist only as the one who came, the one who witnessed, the one who longed to be gone: a being without substance, a ghost beside the true body of Crusoe. Is that the fate of all storytellers?”. This is the basic overview of the entire novel which a surface level reading of the novel is likely to provide the readers with. However, a close reading of the novel would reveal the usage of various post-modernistic themes like post-colonialism, feminism and others within the framework of the novel.
Significance of Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, J.M. Coetzee’s Foe and Derek Walcott’s Pantomime in postcolonial literature
The initial pages of the novel shed critical insight into the themes that would be discussed in the novel. For example, in page 40 of the novel she says that “…a being without substance, a ghost beside the true body of Cruso. Is that the fate of all story tellers? Yes I was as much a body as Cruso. I ate and drank, I woke and slept the island was Cruso’s (yet by what right? by the law of islands? Is there such a law?)”. In another section of the novel, namely page 140 she says that “for though my story gives the truth, it does not give the substance of the truth (I see that clearly, we need not pretend it is otherwise). To tell the truth in all its substance you must have quiet and a comfortable chair away from all distraction and a window to stare through, and then the knack of seeing waves when there are fields before your eyes and of feeling the tropic sun when it is cold, and at your finger prints with which to capture to vision before it fades. I have none of these, while you have all”. These pages are not only redolent with the various themes of otherness but at the same time with post-colonialism, feminism and others. It would be appropriate to say that she is a free woman who chooses to exercise her right of freedom by way of writing her story. Furthermore, the theme of power and language is also being used at this particular juncture since it is seen that Defoe is not only uninterested in writing her story but at the same dissuades her from doing so. At this particular juncture she also says that “In every story there is silence, some sight concealed, some word unspoken, I believe. Till we have spoken the unspoken we have not come to the heart of the story”. This particular statement hints not only towards the suppression of the voice of the subaltern but at the same time the suppression of the voice of the females since the traditional times as well.
The play “Pantomime” by Derek Walcott (1978) is another play which takes the help of the basic plot of the novel “Robinson Crusoe” of Defoe for the purpose of exploring deeper themes. A surface level reading of the play would reveal the in-charge of the manager of a hotel, Trewe and the waiter of the same hotel trying to come up with diverse kinds of means to ensure that the hotel after it is being opened would get adequate number of visitors. At the start of the play Trewe is shown to be engrossed in the reading of a play which he intends to perform before the visitors of the hotel once the hotel starts and it is interesting that this play is supposed to be an adaptation of Defoe’s “Robinson Crusoe”. The play presents the waiter, Jackson to be a practical individual who suggests to Treve instead of focusing on the play for the entertainment of the visitors should rather focus on the renovation of the hotel which is in a very bad condition at the current moment. However, Treve soon convinces him to help him in the practice of the play and they even exchange the roles of the master and the servant for the same purpose. There are many expressions used at this particular point of time which hints to racialism and the harsh effects of colonialism. At this particular point of time Jackson even threatens to leave the job and go back to England however when he comes go known about the condition of Treve he decides to stay back and instead him to make the hotel a success. However, a deeper analysis of the novel would show that the play-writer takes the help of a simple story to focus on deeper themes like post-colonialism, racism and others.
A close analysis of the pages 4 to 10 of the play under discussion her reveals various facets of racism, post-colonialism, power and language and others. For example, at various points of these pages it is seen that Treve is more interested in maintaining his superior position in comparison to Jackson rather than working together with him and it is a reflection of this particular aspect that he is not comfortable with the role reversal of the master and the slave. Furthermore, when Jackson actually gets inside the character of the master and starts to feel more like the Crusoe of the famous novel Treve starts to feel uncomfortable as his superior position by virtue of being the white skinned individual is being challenged. Thus, the various dialogue exchanges between the two at this particular juncture are generally being seen as a typical example of the power position that the colonizers tried to have over the natives in the colonies. Furthermore, at this particular point of time it is also seen that Treve takes the help of language to gain a superior position over Jackson.
A close analysis of the all three literary texts under discussion here would reveal the fact that they have certain common factors among themselves. Firstly, all three takes the help of the same story line in one way or the other. Secondly, all three of them tries to explore the various themes related to the genres of post-colonialism, feminism, power and language and others. Experts are of the viewpoint that all of these works seemed radical at the time of their of their publication because of the fact that all them contained the kind of themes that not only unsettled the common readers in a significant manner but at the same were too radical for their times. For example, Defoe was taking about the various precepts of post-colonialism at a time when the concept or the various precepts of post-colonialism have not been formulated in a concrete manner. Coetzee talked about the concept of post-colonialism and feminism at a time when the majority of the writers were trying to explore the boundaries of modernism and post-modernism. Walcott discussed about the concepts of post-colonialism and racism at a time when these concepts were the lacuna of the majority of the political unrests arising in the various nations of the world. In addition to these, the works of Coetzee and Walcott started a new trend in the cannon in the world of Literature, that is, the practice of going back to the classical novels and using the story lines of those novels for the creation of new ones. The opinion of Spivak is important to note in this particular context when she says that “Pantomime and Foe both show how black male are under the control of white men and how women are controlled by men and act as subordinates”.
One of the most important concepts in the cannon of post-colonialism is the concept of subaltern and this particular concept was the lacuna of the article “Can the Subaltern Speak?” of Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. The article talks about the voice of the subaltern and what Spivak actually intends to mean by the phrase “voice of the subaltern” are the voices of the marginalized people or the people who have been subjected to evil yolk of colonialism. More importantly in the article she says that “if, in the context of colonial production, the subaltern has no history and cannot speak, the subaltern as female is even more deeply in shadow”. Furthermore, the non-fictional literary work “The Empire Writes Back” of the authors Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin also states that the voices of the marginalized people or the ones who have been subjected to the evil process of colonization have been suppressed or more appropriately rebuffed since the traditional times. It is significant to note that the colonizers in the name of following the concept of “the white man’s burden” not only plundered the natural resources of the various colonial countries of the world but at the same time robbed them of their cultural resources as well. More importantly, it is a generally concurred fact by the majority of the post-colonial scholars that the national histories of the people who were subjected to the process of colonialism were also appropriated to a great extent. It is a reflection of this particular fact that most of the literary texts of the world reveal the countries that have been subjected to the process of colonialism as filled with people who not lived as savages but at the same time needed the help of the white skinned people to get a certain amount of civilization in their lives.
The novel “Robinson Crusoe” is redolent with the theme of post-colonialism which is being reflected in the various dialogue exchanges of the main characters and also through some of the actions of the main characters of the novel. For example, the theme of post-colonialism becomes very prominent in the relationship that Crusoe shares with Friday and also the manner in which he treats him during the entire course of the novel. At the start of the novel Friday is being presented as a savage who is used to the cannibalistic way of life. However, Crusoe belonging to the white skinned community takes the onus on himself to not only teaches him the language of English but at the same time to convert him to Christianity as well by way of dispensing his “white man’s burden”. It is significant to note that just like in the later times during the era of colonialism it was seen that inspite of civilizing him and also converting him to Christianity, Crusoe uses him as a domestic servant and does not consider him as an individual on par with himself. Thus, commenting on the condition of Friday he says that “These reflections made me very sensible of the goodness of Providence to me, and very thankful for my present condition, with all its hardships and misfortunes………….Let them consider how much worse the cases of some people are, and their case might have been, if Providence had thought fit”. In the novel “Foe”, the same thing happens since Barton also faces the same kind of treatment not only Crusoe but also from the different members of the ship in which they were sailing. As a matter of fact it is seen that inspite of having a relationship with Barton, Defoe was not ready to write about the experiences of Barton. Thus, commenting on her own inferior position before Crusoe she says that “as to who among us is a ghost and who not I have nothing to say: it is a question we can only stare at in silence, like a bird before a snake, hoping it will not swallow us”. The play “Pantomime” of Walcott also takes the help of the same theme and not only uses the story line of the novel of Defoe for the purpose of the play that they were supposed to perform before the visitors of the hotels but at the same time it also becomes evident in the exchanges between Treve and Jackson. Furthermore, it is seen that even during the exchange of the roles of master and slave Treve demands that Jackson should not forget the difference between them and give the adequate amount of respects that he deserves. In this particular context it must be said that it is Treve who needed the services of Jackson more than Jackson needed the help of Treve however the behavior of both of the characters of the play suggest otherwise.
The concept of feminism is another important one which has permeated the genre of Literature in a significant manner in the recent times. It is significant to note that the concept of feminism is a traditional one however it was only in the latter half of the 20th century that the concept began to be to be used extensively in the genre of Literature. For example, the earliest instance of the usage of this particular concept dates back even before the time of Chaucer when Christine de Pizan tried to explore this particular concept in several of her works and as a matter of fact of many of the works of Chaucer himself show signs of the concept albeit in rudimentary form. However, in the cannon of Literature the concept began to be used in an extensive manner only after the revolutionary works of Virginia Woolf, Dorothy Richardson, Simone de Beauvoir and others. The emergence of this particular concept is generally seen as a reaction to the male dominance that the females had to endure since the traditional times. All three of the works under discussion contain various instances wherein the usage of this particular concept becomes evident.
Of all the three literary texts under discussion the one that embodies the theme of feminism in the true sense of the term is the novel of Coetzee “Foe”. In the novel, it is seen that Barton is made to not only bear the patriarchy of Crusoe at the island but at the same time she really has to go out of her to convince Defoe about the hardships as well as trails that she has faced. She has to go even to the extent of entering into a relationship with Defoe so that she could move him to write about her story. However, the only thing that she gets from him is the fact that he agrees to include a chapter about her in the work of his. It is in this particular context that she says “An aversion came over me that we feel for all the mutilated. Why is that so, do you think? Because they put us in mind of what we would rather forget: ……… also how helpless it is before the knife, once the barrier of teeth has been passed. The tongue is like the heart, in that way, is it not?”. In addition to this, she is also made to undergo through various forms of harsh treatments at the island in the novel and about this says that “it seemed to me that all things were possible on the island, all tyrannies and cruelties, though in small……..”. The novel “Robinson Crusoe” also contains various instances especially the manner in which the wife of Crusoe is being portrayed throughout the novel which indicates the usage of this particular theme. The play of Walcott is redolent with the concept of masculinity and it is been adequately represented in the dialogues between the two characters.
The concept of power and language is another one which has gained a considerable amount of significance within the world of Literature. This particular concept is mainly being concerned with the exploration of the manner in which language is being portrayed in the literary texts and also the manner in which it is being used to wield power in the world of the literary text. The usage of this particular theme is commonly encountered within the cannon of the post-colonial Literature. The various authors take the help of this particular literary device to show the manner in which language was being utilized by the colonizers to gain control over the people whom they have colonized. Thus, it is seen that the novel “Robinson Crusoe”, Crusoe assumes the language of the superior self in order to gain control over Friday, the savage and even goes to the extent of using him as his domestic servant. Furthermore, even in the novel “Foe” it is seen that the fictional character Crusoe once again takes the help of superior language to have control over Barton. The context again becomes apparent when he refuses to write about the story of Barton on the same grounds. The usage of power and language becomes more in the play of Derek Walcott when it is seen that Treve takes the help of façade of superior to dictate terms to Jackson and at the same time demands that he watches the distance between the two and acts in a likewise manner. Thus, it would be apt to say that all the three texts contain important examples of the usage of this particular theme.
To conclude, the genre of Literature is a very dynamic one and it is generally seen that the themes as well as the topics that were important and found popular representation in one generation are very different from another generation. For example, in the present times it is generally seen that the various writers from the once colonial countries are coming forward and trying to narrate the hardships that they faced under the yolk of colonialism. It is a reflection of this particular fact that the genre of post colonial Literature has gained a significant amount of prominence within the cannon of the present day Literature. “Robinson Crusoe” is one of the most read novels of the world and this might be seen as a reflection of the plethora of the themes that the novel has tried to explore. In addition to this, it is seen that many of the novels of the present times are using the basic story line of this particular to explore new themes as well as concepts. Two most important examples of such kinds of literary works are J.M. Coetzee’s “Foe” and Derek Walcott’s “Pantomime”. It is significant to note that all these three works have various kinds of thematic similarities, namely, all of them tries to explore the concept of post-colonialism in one form or the other, all of them are redolent with the themes of feminism as well as the concept of power and language and the manner in which it has been utilized to gain power over the others. Furthermore, it can be said that the literary works Foe and Pantomime can be seen as examples of writing back and both the works use the original work of Defoe to present the important themes of the present times in an effective manner.
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