Major Sources of Stress in Life
stating the hypotheses and Describing their Independent and dependent variables
- Has consumption of alcohol at school leavers’ celebration changed from last social event?
- Null hypothesis
The use of alcohol at leaver’s celebration has not changed compared to last social event.
- Alternative hypothesis
The use of Alcohol at leaver’s celebration has increase from last social event.
These are predictor variables that are manipulated in an experiment or study to predict / observe the behaviors or effects of dependent variable. From the Lam et. al. (2014) research article, variable for the hypotheses are listed below:
Use of alcohol among males
Use of alcohol among Females
Males’ Average School leavers’ event day
Female’ Average School leavers’ event day
These are outcome variables, that are rely on the value of the independent variables. From the Lam et. al. (2014) research article, variable for the hypotheses are listed below:
Allover use of Alcohol
Average School leavers’ event day
- Has the use of other drugs like amphetamine, caffeine, cannabis and ecstasy changed in school leavers’ celebration
- Null hypothesis
There’s no significant change in the use of other drugs apart from alcohol in leaver’s celebration
- Alternative hypothesis
Is there significant change in the use of other drugs apart from alcohol in leaver’s celebration?
These are predictor variables that are manipulated in an experiment or study to predict / observe the behaviors or effects of dependent variable. From the Lam et. al. (2014) research article, variable for the hypotheses are listed below:
Use of other drugs other than alcohol among males
Use of other drugs other than alcohol among females
Use of drugs in leavers’ day 1, day 2, day3
Dependent
These are outcome variables, that are rely on the value of the independent variables. From the Lam et. al. (2014) research article, variable for the hypotheses are listed below:
Use of other drugs in school other than alcohol leavers’ celebration
Average daily use of other drugs
Question Two: Sampling method used in Lam et. al. (2014) research article, its advantages and Disadvantages
The sampling method used in this research is stratified sampling. The sample was drawn from a population that contained two strata, female and male, 56% and 44% respectively of the sample.
Advantages of stratified sampling
- Stratified sample gives more prominent exactness compared to simple random sample of the similar
- Due to fact that it provide precision, a stratified sample requires smaller sample, which saves research budget.
- Can ensure that specific groups are represented, even proportionally, in the sample for instance by gender, by selecting individuals from strata list
- With this sample, one is bale to ensure that he/she obtain sufficient sample points to support a separate analysis of subgroup in the sample.
Disadvantages of stratified sampling
- Comparing it to a simple random sample, stratified sampling requires more administrative effort than simple random sample.
- Most of the analyses are computational more than in a simple random sample.
Question Three: Demographic characteristics of the people in the sample
- Most of the persons are young of aged 17 years and the others are 18 years olds
- The sample is 56% female and 44% male.
- The samples comprised of persons leaving the school or have left the school some time back and have participated in leavers celebration.
Question Four: inferential statistics that were used and the reason for their use
Inferential statistics used in the study are:
Spring break estimation of Average alcohol dinks taken daily; 18 drinks and 10 drinks for male and female respectively
Estimates of alcohol use in Victoria Queensland, 69 and 76% consume 5 drinks or more on a typical school day.
Inferential statistics are meant to compare with the results of the study to determine their statistical significance and reliability. They also help to determine whether the results are in line with reports and results of the recently done studies.
Question Five: Odd ratio for engaging in unprotected sex
The odds ratio for engaging in unprotected sex is 10. 92 and its confidence interval are (1.14, 104.25). This shows that there’s a significant association between engaging in unprotected sex and safety strategy. This also implies that those who safety strategy was 10.92 times more likely to engage in unprotected sex.
Question Six: how representative sample is?
Variables in the Lam et al. (2014) Study
The Sample is representative as it has taken into use of alcohol and other drugs across gender from different national school in Australia. Results of the study concur with the results of the past studies, that there’s increased use of alcohol and other drugs in leavers’ celebrations.
Read the Wong et. al. (2014)
Question one: Aim of the study
The study aims at evaluating the prevalence of self-reported diabetes and examine factors that are independent associated with diabetes.
Question two: Demographic Characteristics of the people in the sample?
- The sample composed of adults aged between 15 years and above
- The average age of persons was 38.2 years
- Sample populous is heterogeneous, it comprises of males and female adults from Hong Kong population
- Averagely, most people are higher income earned due to their advanced age
Question Three: Inferential statistics used to analyze data in this study Inferential statistics used in this study are
The result of Chinese study of 2001 by the International Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease in Asia They reported diabetes prevalence rate of 1.3%.
This was meant to determine whether the study conducted in Hong Kong are significantly differently from what has already been revealed the recent study. This also helps in understanding the reliability of the study results.
Their reported age-adjusted prevalence rates were among male adults were 2.8, 2.87, 3.32 and 4.66% in years 2001, 2002, 2005 and 2008 respectively. On the other hands, the age-adjusted prevalence rate among female adults was 3.25, 3.37, 3.77 and 4.32%. The reported adjusted prevalence in both males and females indicated a drastic rise with an increase in age. The adjusted prevalence’s trend of self-reported diabetes was progressively increasing across the years from 2001 to 2008 in the age groups of below 75 years. This is clearly illustrated in the graph chart below.
the prevalence of self-reported diabetes among males and females aged 15 years and above for selected from 2001 to 2008 in the household face -to-face interviews conducted in Hong Kong.
Question Five: Interpretation of the odd ratios for self-reported diabetes diagnosis to explain who is at the greatest risk of diabetes
The results were be outlined at sample level and subgroup level; male and female
In term of age, the elderly/old age (above 65 years) persons are at greatest risk of diabetes among all the age groups. This age group has the highest adjusted odd ratio of 120.1. This followed by 20-65 age groups, which has adjusted odd ratio of 32.2. Those in age group between 0 and 39 years are not associated with the diabetes, due to their adjusted odd ratio of 1.0. These imply that aged (above 65year) are at greater risk of diabetes than median aged and the young persons.
In terms, of sex, the adjusted odd ratio of both male and female are approximated to be 1, this suggests that there’s no association between sex and the prevalence of diabetes
In terms of monthly housed income bracket, persons who earns below 9, 999 Hong Kong dollars are significantly related to diabetes. Their adjusted odd ratio is 2.19, the highest among all the income range brackets. This is followed by personal who earns between 10,000 and 24,999 Hong Kong Dollars, with adjusted odd ratio of 1.58. Those who earns above 50,000 Hong Kong dollars are not significantly associated with diabetes, due to their odd ratio of 1.0. These suggest that low income earners are at the greater risk of diabetes than high income earners.
Sampling Method Used in Lam et al. (2014) Study
In term s of age, aged males (65 years and above) are highly associated to diabetes, with the highest adjusted odd ratio of 141.08, compared to other age groups. The median aged males (40-65 years) are the second, with adjusted odd ratio of 45.43.The young males (0-39 years) are not significantly associated with diabetes; their adjusted odd ratio is 1.
In terms of monthly housed income bracket, males who earns below 9, 999 Hong Kong dollars are significantly related to diabetes. Their adjusted odd ratio is 2.28, the highest among all the income range brackets. This is followed by personal who earns between 25000 and 49,999 Hong Kong dollars with adjusted odd ratio of 1.59. Those males who earns above 50,000 Hong Kong dollars are not significantly associated with diabetes, due to their odd ratio of 1.0.
In term s of age, aged females (65 years and above) are highly associated to diabetes, with the highest adjusted odd ratio of 105.45, compared to other age groups. The median aged females (40-65 years) are the second, with adjusted odd ratio of 23.49.The young females (0-39 years) are not significantly associated with diabetes; their adjusted odd ratio is 1.
In terms of monthly housed income bracket, females who earns below 9, 999 Hong Kong dollars are significantly related to diabetes. Their adjusted odd ratio is 2.14, the highest among all the income range brackets. This is followed by personal who earns between 10,000 and 24,999, Hong Kong dollars with adjusted odd ratio of 1.66. Those females who earns above 50,000 Hong Kong dollars are not significantly associated with diabetes, due to their odd ratio of 1.0.
In terms of age, aged males (65 years and above) are at higher risk than female in the similar age group. The adjusted odd ratio of males is 141.08, which is higher than females’ one, which is 105.45. Furthermore, young persons (0-39 years) from both sexes are not related to diabetes, their adjusted odd ratio is 1.
In terms of monthly housed income bracket, males who earns below 9, 999 Hong Kong are at higher risk of diabetes than females who earn within the same income bracket. The adjusted odd ratio of males is 2.28, which is higher than females’ one, which is 2.14. The higher income earn
(Above 50,000 Hong Kong dollars) from both sex are not associated with diabetes, they have adjusted odd ratio of 1.
Question Six: Impact of limitations described by the researchers on the extent to which results can be trusted
The following are the limitation described by the researchers:
- The researchers relied on self-reported information to ascertain the prevalence of diabetes, and the recent studies in China suggested that three out four diabetes patients were undiagnosed. Thus there was no information in any sub-population on the validity of self-reported diabetes when compared with standardized methodology.
Most of the time self-reported data may contain sources of bias for example exaggerations, attribution, selective memory and telescoping among the respondents. These lead to incongruence between self-reported data and data form other sources. The results of the study in our discussion is incongruent with the recent China studies, this makes the result not be most reliable.
Also, there could be other variable/ factors that which could influence the prevalence of the diabetes, which were not take into account in the study for example lifestyle, body mass index and family history of diabetes.
This shows that the result does not show clearly, what are the major factors that influence the prevalence of diabetes. Failure of the study to account for all possible factor of diabetes makes its results not to be reliable and do not bigger image of the main causes of diabetes and attributable factors among the Chinese population. .
This survey adopted study design by stratified random sampling. The regression analyses explained only 20% of the variability of diabetes prevalence and more work is needed to explore its relationship with other risk factors in the larger Chinese Populous .
Due to fact that regression analyses only explain 20% of the variable of prevalence of diabetes, the models obtained will not be significantly critical for the predictions of the prevalence of diabetes in large Chinese population. This implies that any projection done using the model will not reflect the prevalence of diabetes in China as whole due fact that some risk factors have been left out.
References
Lam, T., Liang, W., Chikritzhs, T., & Allsop, S. (2014). Alcohol and other drug use at school leavers’ celebrations. Journal of Public Health, 36(3), 408-416. Retrieved from: https://jpubhealth.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2013/08/26/pubmed.fdt087.full.pdf+html
Wong, M. C., S., Leung, M. C., M., Tsang, C. S., H., Griffiths, S. M. (2013). The rising tide of diabetes mellitus in a Chinese population: A population-based household survey on 121,895 persons. International Journal of Public Health, 58(2), 269-276. Retrieved from: https://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.laureate.net.au/10.1007/s00038-012-0364-y
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