Substance abuse and dependence syndrome
Discuss about the Aboriginal Or Torres Strait Islander Alcohol Use Prevention Program.
Substance abuse, commonly referred to as drug abuse, encompasses the patterned use of drugs, in instances where the consumer indulges in activities where the substance is consumed in amounts that are harmful to themselves and their surrounding people (D’Abbs, 2012). In other words, the term substance abuse refers to hazardous or harmful use of several psychoactive substances that include alcohol and illicit drugs. The use of psychoactive substancesmost often result in onset of dependence syndrome (WHO, 2014). This condition is defined as a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological phenomena, which develops after repeated substance use. This typically includes a strong desire to consume alcohol or a particular drug, followed by difficulties in abstaining from its consumption (Doran &Tsey, 2013). This in turn contributes to harmful consequences that directly create an effect on the physical and mental health of the individual. Substance use has been recognized as a major contributing factor to a plethora of diseases, illness, accidents, injury, crime, and violence, family disruption and workplace conflicts (Shepherd et al., 2014). Upon comparison with the non-indigenous counterparts, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders have demonstrated a high proportion of alcohol use. Indigenous Australians were found to be twice likely as non-Indigenous Australians for binge drinking (17% and 8%, respectively) in 2004-05 (Hudson, 2011). Patterns of alcohol consumption among indigenous Australians were found to differ by gender. Higher proportions of men were found addicted to alcohol, than women, in 2008 (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2011). This report will illustrate the effectiveness of alcohol management programs in reducing rates of problematic alcoholism among indigenous Australians, residing in rural and remote locations.
In recent years, Alcohol Management Plans (AMPs) have gained recognition and importance and have been recognized by the Australian government policies, in response to mitigating the harms that are caused by alcohol in the indigenous Australian communities (World Health Organization & World Health Organization. Management of Substance Abuse Unit, 2014). The AMPs have been developed while keeping the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders central to the objective. These management plans were first enforced and implemented across several communities, throughout northern Australia (The Lowitja Institute, 2018). However, little research had been conducted to document their effectiveness in illicit alcohol use prevention. One such program is the Alcohol Management Plan by the Queensland Government (Queensland Government, 2017). These AMPs were developed since 30 December 2002, and operate across 19 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, present in 15 areas of the local government and were formulate with the aim of reducing prevalence of alcohol related violence, against women and children (Queensland Treasury and Trade, 2011). Primary feature of this plan is attributed to the fact that it encompassed several restrictions on the quantity and type of liquor consumed and considered violations of these restrictions as major offences under the Sections 168B and C of Liquor Act 1992 (the Act). The basic success of this management plan is related to the fact that it resulted in enforcement of laws in situations when the indigenous Australians were found in possession of alcohol or attempted to bring alcohol in their communities, in excess of the limits set by alcohol restrictions (Queensland Government, 2017).
Alcohol Management Plans and their effectiveness
Since the year 1979, approximately 100 indigenous communities residing in the Northern Territory have been found using the restricted area provisions, enlisted under Part VIII of the NT Liquor Act 1978, for either imposing a ban on or restricting the possession and consumption of alcohol in their communities (Queensland Government, 2017). Furthermore, 10indigenous communities living in Western Australia had also declared themselves dry, under the section 175 of the WA Liquor Control Act 1988, thereby enabling appropriate implementation of the alcohol restriction or management strategies that were implemented by the government (Clough et al., 2016). A report ‘Little Children Are Sacred’ was commissioned by the NT government in 2007 and focused on protection of Aboriginal children from abuse. Alcohol use restrictions were also coupled with vigilance on takeaway sales across Northern Territory and heavy penalties. They imposed fines up to $74,800 and/or 18 months imprisonment, for restriction breaches, in addition to signs present at entrance to communities (d’Abbs, 2015). Moreover, Aboriginal women inthe towns of Fitzroy Crossing and Halls Creek, Western Australia motivated the Director of Liquor Licensing for implementing restrictions to control takeaway alcohol strengths and impose limitations on opening hours of pubs or taverns (Kumar &Klien, 2013). New liquor laws, introduced in 2008 in NSW were able to reform the legislation and authorized the Director of Liquor and Gaming to determine complaints, and impose conditions on liquor license (Clough & Bird, 2015). The plan also got the power to declare curfews and lockouts for minimizing harms associated with alcohol abuse.
The Alcohol Management Plans of Queensland were reviewed a year after their enforcement, for assessing their direct or indirect effects on the indigenous population and their alcohol use (Dossetoret al., 2017). The Department of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Policy developed a review team that gathered and interpreted data and also consulted withthe Community Justice Group, community members, local councils, and key stakeholders (Kumar &Klien, 2013). One major impact related to the implementation of these plans was associated with break out of huge brawls in and around the pubs, and an increase was observed in rates of domestic violence. Some indigenous drinkers were found to originally create oppositions towards the restrictions that were imposed on liquor use (Clough et al., 2014). However, these people began supporting the AMPs once they could perceive the direct health benefits that the plans provided (Brimblecombe et al., 2013). Measuring effectiveness of the plans that imposed restrictions on Fitzroy Crossing and Halls Creek was difficult due to the fact that it was practically impossible to distinguish between the impacts of alcohol restrictions in these communities that also had other measures in action such as, welfare quarantining and additional policing (Clough & Bird, 2015). While benefits of the Alcohol Management Plans include reduction in the rates of consumption of alcohol, and less alcohol related harms or self-injuries, two of the most common negative effects encompassed displacement of the drinking problem to other regions and sly-grogging or black marketing of alcohol. The sales data from Crossing Inn’s showed 73% reduction (9,360 litres-2,512 litres) in alcohol sales over a time period of three monthsbefore and after impose of restrictions (Brimblecombe et al., 2013).
Enforcement of management plans in various regions
Following implementation of the AMPs, residents often report quieter pay weeks, and a reduction in drunks walking while drinking that caused less trouble. 36% reduction has also been recorded in the emergency admissions that are alcohol-related, at the Fitzroy Crossing Hospital (Fitzpatrick et al., 2015). Similar reports have also been recorded from Queensland, regarding a decrease in hospital admissions for self-inflicted assault or other injuries, particularly in indigenous communities with canteens, and zero alcohol carriage limits (Jorm et al., 2012). The Annual Highlights Report of the Queensland government, on indigenous communities, showed a significant reduction in rates of domestic violence and assaults in Cape York,at rates higher than 10% among the indigenous Australians, from 2002 to 2010 (Hudson. 2011).
Moreover, the number of children who were taken into care due to physical and mental health issues that are a direct manifestation of alcohol related neglect or abuse showed significant reductions since introduction of the Families Responsibility Commission and Alcohol Management Plans (Jorm etv al., 2012). The most important positive impact that the management plans exerted on the indigenous communities living in the Fitzroy Crossing and Halls Creek can be attributed to the fact that the Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders began to acknowledge the scope of lot of work and future prospects, which made them develop a vision for a positive and secured future for their children (d’Abbs, 2015).
However, displacement of drinkers to the rural and remote regions also left several children, who were abandoned by their parents. In addition, there were certain limitations related to the enforcement of the alcohol management plans and restrictions (Brimblecombe et al., 2013). One major limitation is related to the fact that the management plans do not work, unless they are appropriately enforced by the government (Clough et al., 2016). Moreover, the restrictions and management plans also failed to address the reason for the high prevalence of drinking rates among the indigenous people.
The aboriginal and TorresStrait islanders are known as the primitive and original inhabitants of Australia and the primary characteristic of this community is their strong association with their own culture, tradition, language and community (Bardsley& Wiseman, 2012). The number of aboriginals in Australia, as per the data of Australian Bureau of Statistics (2018), is 2.8% of entire Australian population, which is equal to 649,171 people. While providing the characteristics of the community the demographics of the community within Australia should be mentioned with description of their income, education level, social exclusion or discrimination as these are the primary factor that influences them to consume high amount of alcohol (Woodward et al., 2012, Clifford, Doran &Tsey, 2013).
Impact of Alcohol Management Plans on indigenous communities
The education level of aboriginal population is a serious concern as the rate of 20-24 year old individual completed their education up to year 12 is 37 to 47%, compared to 79% of the nonindigenous population (Singleton et al., 2014). The data also revealed the fact that the aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders were the one that left their schooling or basic education before year 12 compared to the non-indigenous people (Bardsley& Wiseman, 2012; Doney et al., 2016). The rate has increased form the last census as the current rates showed that the number of indigenous people that left their basic education is 24% compared to the 8.6% of non-indigenous people (Carson et al., 2012; Berkes& Ross, 2013). Further, the data related to their family or personal income and according got that the rate of income was half compared to the non-indigenous people as they the weekly entre household income of indigenous population (more than $1000 weekly) was of 20% population compared to 41% of the non-indigenous population (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2018).
These data related to demographics of indigenous population is Australia was important to describe as these, along with the social discrimination and racial comments are the primary reasons for depression and mental healthissues due to which the aboriginals and indigenous population uses or consumes alcohol hampering their own health (Jorm et al., 2012; Steenkamp et al., 2012). Further, it should also be mentioned that social exclusion, racial comments and discrimination is has a great extent of the social, physical and mental behavior of the community, that enables them to consume excess amount of alcohol without understanding its present and future implications (Brimblecombe et al., 2013; Nadew, 2012).
For this discussion, a specific alcohol management plan, the Queensland, Australia alcohol management plan will be discussed and factors that inhibited its success will be mentioned. The primary reason can be lack of willpower in government that made them unable to continue the AMP project in Queensland Australia for longer time (Howes, Warnecke& Nelson, 2013). There were few necessary step that the government had to take so that alcohol can be removed from the community and maximum people accept this reform peacefully (Clough et al., 2014). They should be provided the community people with a proper and compact knowledge of excess alcohol related diseases and disorders in lucid language so that they can understand the necessity of quitting alcohol. Nevertheless, in spite of focusing on these points, the AMP of Queensland was focusing on protecting children women and others from alcohol related violations and discrimination in 19 aboriginal community states (Rosenbern&Hickie, 2013). Secondly, the AMP was directed at the security from alcohol related violation, however, the government took no action to declare those states as dry state or banning alcohols in indigenous populated areas that determined the inability of government as alcohol is a major part of Australian revenue generation (Holliday, Hayes& Dunlop, 2013). Therefore, for economic benefit, the Australian government might compromised the activity and success of AMPs for economic revenues. Hence, these were the identified factors that halts the success of alcohol management plans in Queensland (Earl, Bednall&Muratore, 2015).
Limitations of Alcohol Management Plans and restrictions
These alcohol management plans are important for indigenous population of Australia as due to these, the level of alcohol consumption is decreasing and the data from ABS has shown that 2.13% alcohol consumption in Australian indigenous population has been noted (McCalman et al., 2012). Besides these, in different aspects such as their involvement in cultural safety interventions, integration of their family, increasing education and income related rates has increased (Watkins et al., 2013). These indicated towards the fact that despite of several shortcomings and loopholes present in the alcohol management policy, the rate of alcohol consumption is decreasing slowly and steadily (Browne, Hayes& Gleeson, 2014).
Besides these positive points, there are several negative points, for improvement of which, the level of alcohol consumption in Australian aboriginals should be decreased and hence AMPs need to implemented with string and determined will power of the government (Campbell, McAlister&Quan, 2013; Clifford, Shakeshaft& Deans, 2012). The data from Australian Bureau of Statistics determined that indigenous aboriginal’s community is suffering from alcohol driven disorders mostly.
Besides these, there is a major concern which is binge drinking among indigenous community that is causing deaths, suicides, road accidents and social crimes attempted by the indigenous population (Bray et al., 2014; D’Abbs, 2012). there are more than 43% families in the indigenous community that are suffering from substance abuse related violence and crimes, hence, for this purpose also, it is very important for the government to carry out alcohol management programs so that these rates can be decreased and the knowledge related to alcohol use and its bad effects can be reinforced on the indigenous community, to improve their social, physical, mental and behavioral conditions (Gracey, 2014, Jayaraj et al., 2013).
Conclusion
Over consumption of alcohol, which is a type of substance abuse, is not only harmful for the person who is consuming it, but also for the surrounding or closer people, their community and after all their nation. Excessive drinking patter in people leads to dependency syndrome that made them adducted to the product and due to these addiction they involve themselves in actions which are termed as antisocial and criminal behavioral instincts. Therefore alcohol management plans have been applied by the state and central government of the Australia in each aboriginal populated states, as this community is the leader of alcohol consumption in Australia. This assignment dealt with several alcohol management plans directed to the indigenous community of Australia and determined its effectiveness by mentioning the strengths and weaknesses of it. Further, while mentioning the strength and weakness of these alcohol management programs the benefit of these programs has been mentioned in the assignment. With the help of governmental data, the communal characteristics were mentioned and aligned with those data, the need of alcohol management plan in indigenous community was determined.
Characteristics of Indigenous Australians
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