Literature Review Of The Role Of L1 Reading Skills In Acquiring L2 Reading Skills For Young Syrian Refugee ELLs

Research Questions

Discuss about the Literature Review for First Language and Cognitive Abilities.

This review takes efforts that the education of language-minority to be identified, assessed and synthesized by means of their literacy attainment.Due to the increasing distress on increasing ELLs (English language learners) in the schools of the United States of America, it was necessary to determine the literacy, which was described and examined based on the perspectives of theory and policy. This gave rise to the report on the National Literacy Panel on language, in minority kids and youth (August, Shanahan & Escamilla, 2009).

Generally, in Syria the refugee children face the trials of integration into the English schools which has less capability to express the linguistic means to get education. The main objective is to dwell on, whether learning to read English language skills(L2) is challenging for the Syrian kids, due to incomplete read and write skills in their first language which is their native language i.e., Arabic (L1) reading skills. There are more chances that the refugee children might face less class participation, due to language barrier while learning to read L2 (English language).

The expected factors that second-language literacy has to be developed by influencing their age, required skills like read and write skills in the first language, cognitive abilities, difference in acquiring the oral proficiency for second-language, then certain sociocultural variables, classroom and school factors.

For any individual who dwells in this society, language plays a vital role in interacting with other people around them. On the other hand, literacy too have same importance, where literacy is an individual’s ability to utilize the language to read, write, speak, listen, view, represent and helps in thinking critically. Literacy is important for sharing information, to having interaction with other people and to interpret required texts. Therefore, literacy’s role is to connect diverse people from different communities.The MRP is a literature review, which scrutinizes the theoretical orientations to meet the objectives of the research. The research questions are utilized as guideline for reviewing and planning the MRP (major Research Paper). The research questions help in identifying the role of reading skills in first language, to learnsecond language (English) reading skills, for the refugee children who have less or no L1 reading skills.

This major research paper (MRP) aims to develop literacy in L2 (i.e., English) reading skills,in learners with little or no L1 (i.e., Arabic) reading skills. Various research and its data are utilized to accomplish the aim of MRP. Thus, MRP reviews the theory, to research on the role of L1 reading skills for acquiring L2 reading skills by the young Syrian refugee English Language Learners (ELLs), now present in Ontario and Canada. Because of little, no, or severely interrupted schooling, these young kids between 10 to 12 years have less L1 reading skills i.e., Arabic as first language. Before moving to Canada, these kids were in refugee camps in the neighboring countries, for a long duration. Thus, the research question for the literature review is that, is it possible to acquire reading skills of English language (i.e., second language), when the reading skill of first language is missing. If this is possible then, what role does L1 reading skills play to learn L2 reading skills? The other questions that are pondered includes, the challenges faced by these Syrian refugees who have less or no L1 (Arabic) reading skill. Relatively, how will they lean L2 (English) reading skills in public schools of Ontario? Further, the findings of the research answers the help that is essential to these kids from the teachers for learning L2 reading skills in Ontario’s public schools.

Methodology

This research ensures to find the challenges to learn the second language (English), by the young refugees who have less or no L1 reading skills. The Literature review is concluded, followed by important suggestions. Moreover, other researcher’s proofs and reasoning are collected to help in concluding the research.

The major points that will be discussed in this research are represented in the form of research questions, which are listed below:

• How and why the lack of L1 reading skill can impact on the development of L2 reading skills.
• What kind of impacts might it be?
• Which of the specific linguistic, socio-cultural and affective factors must be pondered while the young refugees are being taught in the public schools?
• In what way these factors can generally disturb the development of education, such as learning and reading skills of the young refugee learners, especially the young Syrian refugee learners?
• What could be the challenges that are faced by the Syrian kids to learn L2 reading skills in the public schools of Ontario, Canada?
• Is L1 reading skills required for learning L2 reading skills?
• Does these refugee kids need the help of the teacher, to learn L2 reading skills in public schools in Ontario?
• What must the teachers be aware of for supporting the development of L2 reading skills in these refugee kids?
• How will the teachers know to help these kids’ L2 reading development?
• Are there any strategies that the teachers must follow to support these Syrian kids? 

The objective of this major research paper is to suggest supporting suggestions, based onthe research. The suggestions will help to conclude the assistance needed in meeting the learning and teachingchallenges. The impact of lack of L1 reading skills to learn L2 (English) reading skills will be disclosed.Furthermore, the impact of necessary support from the teachers to theses refugee childrenin learning L2 reading skills will be determined.

Methodology is a comprehensive philosophical foundationfor the selected research method. For this literature review, first the topic is selectedi.e., “Literature Review of the Role of L1 Reading Skills in Acquiring L2 Reading Skills for Young Syrian Refugee ELLs who had Little, No, or Severely Interrupted Schooling”. Next, related research questions are formed and appropriate literaturesare searched. Then, next the arguments are developed from the existing literatures. Further, the literature is surveyed based on the determined answers to the research questions, which is also critiqued. Finally, based on all these steps the review about the selected topic is represented in this report.Therefore, this systematic approach is followed for the development of the literature review. In this review, the researcher ensured to read, summarize, review and synthesis appropriate publications for addressing the considered set of research questions. The evidences gathered are of high-quality. However, it was difficult tofind appropriate resources, which shows sociocultural interventions. This increased the difficulty of sociocultural relationship’s connection with literacy development. 

Any country gives more preference to their national language. For this review, it is necessary to know about language minority. Language minority denotes the individual who actively use a language other than the national language. Such individuals are capable to develop language proficiency in other language, apart from the national language. These category students lack proficiency in second language, in terms of fluency. It can also be that they might be monolingual when it comes to second language.

Whereas, the second language learners are referred to the individuals who come from different background apart from the national language. Moreover, such learners’ proficiency will not be developed unless they are provided helpful instructions in second language.

Review of the Literature

ELLs (English Language Learners)are considered in this review, such students put required efforts to learn English as their second language.

Thebilingual students use their native language for learning Second language. 

The research questions involved in this review along with their answers are projected in this section of the review.

• What challenges do young Syrian refugees with limited or no L1 (Arabic) reading skills due to little, no, or severely interrupted schooling face in acquiring L2 (English) reading skills in public schools in Ontario?

1. QUESTION: What role does L1 reading skills play in acquiring L2 reading skills? Why and how?

The reading skill in L1 on reading skill in L2 is correlated based on the nature and cross-language transfer’s potential.

According to August, Shanahan & Escamilla, (2009) the role of L1 reading skills is to help one benefit to learnto read English language (L2).  Because, L1 acts as a bridge for learning English.Thus, if an individual learns to read their native language, it will help them to learn English language. Same thing applies to young children who have no interrupted schooling. But, there is very less evidence which supports this result for the language minority children and youth.Moreover, there is lack of research for supporting  the proficiency measurement of language in this case. The benefit of learning to read L1 will help with writing skills related to other academic subjects.

The above mentioned conclusion is elaborated in the below section.

In this review English language learners (ELLs) are considered, who learn English as their second language. On the other hand the Syrian refugees fall into the category of bilingual students who require their native language for learning thesecond language. But, the drawback is that Syrian refugee children due to war and immigration might have less or no L1 (Arabic) reading skills, to acquire L2 (English) reading skills in public schools in Ontario.

Various studies are reviewed for finding the role of L1 reading skills to acquire L2 reading skills. According to August & Shanahan (2014), teaching to read and write English for the language-minority young students is considered as a challenge.

According to various studies, the following part is proved, when debated on the development of literacy in the second language children. The role of ?rst language is mainly focused, to determine what role it plays in second language’s literacy development. The study concluded that there is high positive correlation when the ?rst language is correlated with the second language literacy development. Additionally, it is also encountered that if the instructional programs invest enough time and resources (like educational materials, class room facilities etc.), in ?rst language’s literacy development then it will be highly effective when compared to the English medium/ English only programs(Genesee, 2006)(Rolstad, Mahoney & Glass, 2005)(Slavin& Cheung, 2005).

If Syrian refugee children belong to Language minority category, then they are literate in their L1 (i.e., ?rst language). Such students can be benefited in concern with acquiring the reading skill of Second language (i.e., English).If the Syrian refugees lack their first language proficiency, then the instructional programs will work well for these students, in gaining opportunities for developingL1(first language) pro?ciency. When the studies compared the bilingual instructionsand English-only instructions, it showed that the students from the language-minority category who were instructed in both i.e., their native language and also English,on an average performedmuch well, in terms of English reading pro?ciency when compared to the students of language minority category who were just instructed in English. It is proved in both the elementary and secondary levels. 

On the other hand, English plays one of the important roles to excel in all the other academic subjects. 

The critical review determines that, (August & Shanahan, 2014), in constituting the panel, individuals were invited only if they had deep expertise in critical components of literacy, language learning, or research methodology, and an effort was made to include language-minority researchers. Five of the panelists have non-English-language backgrounds, including Spanish/ Argentinian, Hebrew, Spanish/Mexican, and Japanese. In addition, five panelists have important cross-cutting expertise: two are methodologists, two are experts in learning disabilities, and one is an expert in the assessment of students from different backgrounds in terms of culture and linguistics. 

Language transfer is referred to overlapping of two languages.

From the study of Altmisdort(2016), the objectives of L1 reading courses is to be transferred to L2 reading courses. The study’s purpose was to find second language reading skills’ role in L1 reading skills, through transfer. In reading and other sub-skills context, the positive impact of second language to be transferred into the first language was analyzed.The development to L2 reading course is offered, where this proficiency is expected to be transferred to L1 proficiency. Simultaneously, when the students will reach meeting the objective of L1 reading courses, then these skills are seen to be transferred for the L2 reading proficiency. In this literature,two-syllabus designs are well planned for integration, procedural and cyclic model to simultaneously developL1and L2 reading skills.

In the study of Ca´rdenas-Hagan et al., (2007), there are clear evidence that L1 affects the L2 learning in various ways. According to (Leafstedt& Gerber, 2005), the linguistic transfer takes place when an individual starts to learn any other language, for instance L2. This linguistic transfer, ensures the learners to utilize the linguistic resources from their native language (L1). By using cross-linguistic transfer, learners gain the skills of L2 by using L1 language. These skills are generally written and oral language.

The cross-linguistics is determined from Dressler &Kamil, (2006), who state that the cross-linguistic can influence the literacy knowledge, processes, and strategies in children who work on to acquire the second language. This study’s review focuses on the language-minority children, who learn English as a second language (ESL). In educational psychology, the study of cross-language transfer shows its origin. Moreover, in Europeit is seen as a long-lasting and productive tradition.

This study’s result demonstrated that the bilingual learners attract the correlation between the native language (L1) and L2 (English, as second language), for helping to learn L2 reading skills. The results in the literature show the impact of L2 on L1. There are studies which have worked on language transfer when incomes to finding the effects of L2 on L1reading skills. The observed results show the importance of language transfer and reading proficiency. In terms of how L2 learners transfer their L2 skills into L1, it is observed that L2 reading skills and sub-skills positively effect L1 reading skills and sub-skills. It is expected that in future, the L1 and L2 course correlation might lead to designing language curriculum, where both these L1 and L2 courses could have adjunct coursestyle and it can help to transfer the reading skills based on the cross-linguistic approach. This aspect of the result should help the teachers and the program designers for considering the type of program designing model, which has more benefit for their students who have varying L2 and L1 language abilities.

It can be beneficial if the content present in L1 and L2 reading programs are integrated, to effectively understand L2 reading skills, for the Syrian young refugees.

However, language transfer comprises of various interference, where the grammar, definitions, vocabulary, pragmatics, syntax, functions, pronunciation features influence the language. In transferring of language these feature play a vital role in skills like reading, writing, listening and speaking.

The language transfer will result in varied results for different learners, due to difference in proficiency in L1 and L2.

Therefore, L1 reading skills play significant role in acquiring the L2 reading skills. Because, if the individual is proficient in one language it, then it acts as a bridge for learning other language like English.How, L1 reading skills act as a bridge for L2 reading skills is explained by the language transfer. If the Syrian young refugees who know their L1 reading skills can easily acquire the L2 reading skills with the help and guidance on specific phonemesandcombinations of English phonemes which are not available in their native language. 

1. QUESTION: What is the impact of the lack of reading skills in L1 on reading skills of L2 development?

Several literature are reviewed for finding the impact of reading skills in L1onacquiring reading skills in L2.Based on the perspective that there might be some major impacts if the students lack L1 reading skills, this review was conducted.

Among this, the first investigation considered was from the research Altmisdort’s work, wherein readinglanguage transfer from L2 to L1 occurs or not is evaluated. According to the findings of Altmisdort,(2016) the determined results state that reading skills of L1were affected positivelyby the reading skill of L2.

The reviewed studies were evaluated based on the foundation of transfer theories and its ?ndings show that, clear evidence exists on if the students bag the L1 literacy then it will surely benefit the English Language Learners (ELLs). The oral proficiency in first language can also in?uence the patterns of development in speech discrimination and production in the second language. The first language literacy has relation with the English literacy’s development along with word and pseudo word reading, reading strategies spelling reading comprehension, and with writing. The student from language minority group, who are literate in their L1 can benefit then to acquire English literacy. The instructional programs will work well for these students, in gaining opportunities for developingL1 (first language) pro?ciency. As mentioned earlier in this review, when the studies compare the bilingual instructionsand English-only instructions, it showed that the students from the language-minority category who were instructed in both i.e., their native language and also English, on an average performed much well, in terms of English reading pro?ciency when compared to the students of language minority category who were just instructed in English. It is proved in both the elementary and secondary levels.

As per (Altmisdort, 2016), the investigation on whether the transfer from L2 to L1 in reading takes place, and if this is true, which of the reading sub-skills are likely transferred into the L1 reading, the aim refers to identifying the second language reading skills’ role in L1 reading skills, through transfer. Analysis of reading skills and sub-skills were analyzed for determining the positive impact of the second language transferto the first language. The research tested 53 native Turkish-speaking adults from a university, who are categorized as ELLs, they hadsimilar backgrounds of L1 Turkish proficiency. Among these students, for a 4 months duration twenty six students went to L2 reading courses. The rest of them dint go to any L2 reading course. Later, after a gap of four months these groups were asked totake up a standardizedTurkish reading test for L1. This test containedquestions related to reading sub-skills, comprehension, vocabularyandgrammar. The result of this study proved that the reading skills in L1 has impacted positively, with the transfer of L2 reading skill. It also helped to know which of the L1 reading sub-skills have developed more with the transfer of L2 reading skills. This proves that it is possible to transfer the proficiency of L2 reading skill to L1 reading proficiency.

When the case of Syrian refugees are considered, a similar case study of (Maya, 2010), here it was observed that these young refugees in a new Australian school settings were encountered to have behaviorslike confusion, over compensatory behavior/ detachment, lack of concentration anddifficulty to make friendship. Moreover, there were also some of the physical symptoms like insomnia, headache and nausea in these children. The refugees will undergo big culture shock which will conflict with different emotions. Most of the times such children experience sorrow, due to their past losses in the war and increase fear for their future. Where, Lustig et al., (2004) has recommended that for such children feel better in schools based of trauma and grief-focused groups. They help the children to decrease their symptoms of grief, post-traumatic stress and depression.

Therefore, there are noted positive impact of L1 reading skills for developing the reading skills in L2. However, the literacy development of English language is influenced based on the following aspects, age, individual’s language proficiency, English oral proficiency, cognitive abilities, previous learning and the similarities and differencesthat exists in the first and second languages. As an example, it is stated that the adolescent languageminority students who went to first language providing schools might have well-developed phonological skills in both languages, however same development might not be seen in six yearold children. Because, they has less cognitive skills.

The impact reading skills in L1 on reading skills of L2 developmentmight be differentiated based on the reading performance, their attentiveness to learn different features of L2 reading performance, in learners who know two alphabetic languages which follow different writing systems and direction of reading. It also variates their rate of reading/ reading accuracy and reading comprehension correlating with reading fluency.

Not much impacts are found, but there can be impact due to pedagogical implications for the classroom practices followed by their teachers.

As per DeCapua, (2016), the teachers are instructed to take care of refugee children as they are not same like the other normal kids, in terms of their schooling, background and their past. Theses children come under the category of English language learners, so the instructors are required to concentrate on developing these children’s ability to discard them from the category of, Students with limited or interrupted formal education (SLIFE). Thus, it will help to inform the pedagogical and curriculum practices which highly support SLIFE, to gain formal education. 

1. QUESTION: What individual, linguistic, socio-cultural and affective factors should be considered when teaching young refugee learners in public schools?

The researchers have agreed that, the amount of research imparted on explicit literacy instruction for English Language Learners is too small when compared to the native English speakers. Thus, in this topic more research is required. Hardly any policy exists for helping the refugees acquire the L2 reading skills. This underlines the need for enough funding to contribute the important factors that must be imposed on the schools and instructor, for helping the young refugee learners in public schools enjoy quality education. The researchers Taylor and Sidhu has evaluated the lack of required organizational frameworks and policies for addressing the disadvantages for significant education, with respect to the young refugees. As perMajor, Wilkinson and Langat(2013), it is stated that thepresent policies and funding rules haven’t changed with the time,in concern to support the refugees.

The following section projects on the findings for pointing the essentialrequirements to achieve theopportunities of professional development for the ELLs’instructors who are targeted to initially implement on the belief of “Changing the instructors” and  Language minority children’s attitudes, strength and their teachers provide solid preparation for effective teaching strategies and approaches for ELLs. The researchers asserts that in a study, the “teachers blamed the English language learners’ dif?culty with reading skills on their cultural and language backgrounds, rather than on teaching methods, materials and teacher assumptions” Where just 5 researches were reviewed, where the results showed that there is no need to change the teachers as it is a trend where the instructors and others have de?cit views on language minority children.

The authors state that “?uency instruction bene?ts native speakers and appears to similarly bene?t English language learners”

According to Portes and Rumbaut(2001), there are more complicated conclusions. “It is possible that second-language literacy development is similar for native speakers and English-language learners” and “It appears fair to say that the 17 studies discussed in this section yielded results that are largely consistent with the ?ndings for native-speaking populations”, where nearly 400 studies has to be reviewed. Though the results are not enough to prove that the exact instructional routines have been bene?cial for the native speakers to learn second language. The findings of this study contradicts with the rest of the studies, where the pattern in the achievements of the student could be directly linked with the sociocultural factors’ in?uence.

However, the report on assertion on the development of literacy in sociocultural and language minority students’ content describes that, “Available research designed to bridge home-school differences in interaction can enhance students’ engagement and level of participation in classroom instruction. This outcome is certainly not trivial, but is not same as enhancing student’s achievement or other types of learning outcomes.” Then, the researchers explain that “being a member of a low-status language group may have negative effects on self-concept, motivation and/or learning opportunities, all of which can depress literacy attainment” They add, “Language minority parents are willing and able to help their children succeed academically, but schools do not always take full advantage of these home resources”At last, the declaration is that, there exists a critical research requirement to compare the students who get culturally accommodated instruction with students who do not.

Enough discussion in terms of in?uences about socio cultural and  impact on potential literacy development with one exception is performed, where the in?uence of policies at the state level, district level and federal levels are ensured. The study focused on strengthening to recognize the potential impact which the English-only policies in places likeMassachusetts,California and Arizona for the researchers in conducting sociocultural accommodations research in the schools which contain more English Language Learnersor the inordinate pressure which the federal policies have assigned on the schools to have programs like,“one size ?ts all” for matching the testing system and accountability of “one size ?ts all” program.

As per Goldenberg, Rueda & August, (2006), theobservations from the result represent mixed message. The reader lead the readers believe that  schools and classrooms are effective to work on the similar practices for both the ELLs and the native English speakers.Just like this statement, “good teaching is good teaching.” For helping the ELLs, this study stresses to modify these strategies. To support this modification there are certain researches which have acknowledged there support and stated that good instruction and curriculum plays effective role to help the ELLs. Although, there exists many who agree that the instructors should be modified for taking care of the development level in students, in terms of English pro?ciency.It is believed that, when the strategies are changed for cultural and linguistic differences, then the strategies no longer have the similar strategies. Hence, when the changed approaches and strategies take a new dimension and attribute, it will make the strategy to become “new” in its own terms.

In terms of professional development, there exists some doubts in the presented research, related to the necessity of changing the instructor, their attitudes and beliefs concerning the language minority students, their attributesalong with their strengths. Most of the time these students are recognized as just liabilities instead of school and community assets. Thus, new pedagogy and methods must be encouraged than changing the instructors.

According to Kristiina, Hany, Colleen and Sharon, (2012), the cultural responsive pedagogy, and critical multiculturalism are explored based on the government perspectives for assisting the refugees to attendsecondary school in Ontario, Canada. With the help of qualitative researchthe study aims to determine the factors which influences the sense ofschool belonging in the refugee students. On the other hand, the researchers investigated on how the teachers could effectively address the socioemotional needs of the refugees, in the public education system. Thus, the results determined show that the refugee students’ sense of school belonging can be improvised by validating their L1 (first language) skills when it comes to schools, providing disciplinary school climate, and ensuring to supportthem and help them to have opportunities of leadership in the school.

As per Cummins (2011), strong evidences are found for, print access and engagement of literacy has a vital role to promote reading comprehension; then, bilingual student’s development in L1 proficiency has a positive role to develop the L2 academics and for promoting the failure of schools among the subordinated community of students, the relations of societal power has a direct role. The instructional implications in the current review mentions the necessity of having educators for promoting print access and literacy engagement, for teaching cross-lingual transfer, and to affirm students’ identities while having interaction in the classroom.

1. QUESTION: How do these factors affect the education, learning and reading skills development of young refugee learners in general and young Syrian refugee learners in particular?

As mentioned earlier, Kristiina, Hany, Colleen & Sharon, 2012), the cultural responsive pedagogy, and critical multiculturalism are explored based on the government perspectives for assisting the refugees to attend secondary school in Ontario, Canada. With the help of qualitative research the study aims to determine the factors which influences the sense of school belonging in the refugee students. On the other hand, the researchers investigated on how the teachers could effectively address the socioemotional needs of the refugees, in the public education system. Therefore, the results show that the refugee students’ sense of school belonging can be improvised by validating their L1 (first language) skills when it comes to schools, providing disciplinary school climate, and ensuring to support them and help them to have opportunities of leadership in the school.

The critical review determines that, (August & Shanahan, 2014), in constituting the panel, individuals were invited only if they had deep expertise in critical components of literacy, language learning, or research methodology, and an effort was made to include language-minority researchers. Five of the panelists have non-English-language backgrounds, including Spanish/ Argentinian, Hebrew, Spanish/Mexican, and Japanese. In addition, five panelists have important cross-cutting expertise: two are methodologists, two are experts in learning disabilities, and one is an expert in the assessment of students from different backgrounds in terms of culture and linguistics.

The refugees have a past of war and immigration, where they undergo physical and mental issues. They even have disrupted schooling which make them distress on making friendship with other the schools which help such refugees.They get less attention to develop their L2 skills which impact on their other academic subjects. They are not provided effective program to acquire L2 reading skills. There are more chances that these young refugees might have had interrupted schooling, which could have resulted in lack of L1 reading skills. They feel out of place in a new setting and so on. All these aspects put together make these Syrian young refugees face serious challenges.

As per Maya, (2010),in Australian schoolswhen more number of refugee students increase who have background filled with distress, trauma and disrupted education, the school faces new set of challenges. To overcome the challenges new programs like LTTP are designed and tested in Intensive English Centre. Moreover they needed an effective change in their current institutional practices, curriculum content and teaching strategies.Basically the ESL instruction were used for concentration on the development of the English language. The LTPP discusses about the implications that must be implemented for the school system and for the instructors in the classrooms. ESL instructions have been successful to an extent in helping to improve English language skills in the students, like young refugees. The schools have also facilitated a supportive environment that promotes the welfare of these refugees. Additionally, it also addresses the gaps in the cognitive skills, literacy concept and to help them understand the world.

According to Urgoyne and Hull, (2007) the refugees from places like Sudan are given place in Australia, Egypt or in the Kenya’s refugee camps with experiences which constitute somewhat different keenness for the Australian schools. Egypt has not helped the refugee children with any welfare services. Moreover, these children are not provided any facility or exposure of English education. These young refugees came as pre-literate and they are facilitated to have formal English education, despite of the less access to resources like poorly trained teachers with poor strategy for learning. The researcher O’Sullivan, (2006) and others researched on both groups of children who experienced violence, faced chronic malnutrition along with health issues that, has revealed its severe effect on these children’s development.

As per Maya, (2010), there is a program called, Literacy Transition Pilot Program (LTPP), which was started keeping all the complications faced by the young and non-English speakers. The general preparations for the new arrivals believe that the cognitive skills of the upper primary learners is developed along with their literacy, experienced from their previous schooling (i.e., in their first language or mother tongue.). Thus, it was realized that the pre-adolescent refugee students were not being facilitated with proper learning system, which resulted to face high risks related to failure in education system of secondary school. The major reason for this failure is regarded as poor literacy skills and English language.

The review of the young refugees in Australia in this study by Maya, (2010), is correlated with Syrian refugees. It is observed that these young refugees in a new Australian school settings were encountered to have behaviors like confusion, over compensatory behavior/ detachment, lack of concentration and difficulty to make friendship. Moreover, there were also some of the physical symptoms like insomnia, headache and nausea in these children. The refugees will undergo big culture shock which will conflict with different emotions. Most of the times such children experience sorrow, due to their past losses in the war and increase fear for their future. Where, Lustig et al., (2004) has recommended that for such children feel better in schools based of trauma and grief-focused groups. They help the children to decrease their symptoms like grief, post-traumatic depression and stress. 

• Based on findings from research question 1, what can teachers do to help young Syrian refugee learners acquire L2 reading skills in public schools in Ontario?

1. QUESTION: What do teachers need to be aware of to be able to support the L2 reading skills development of these learners?

As per Panferov, (2000), the number of students who are enrolling in the English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) courses in the university-level and who are not international students but are the American K-12 bilingual education programs’ product, are increasing. These refugee of ESL learners don’t need to demonstrate their required level of English language competence with a whooping score of 500 or more in the provided TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language. Their American high school diplomas are considered as proof which is enough to check their competence in the English language. There is reason to believe that the needs of and level of proficiency of these students are different from the typical international student, but there is little empirical data. The researchers of this study attempted to identify the development of English literacy in a single immigrant learner. It is believed that his experiences at the American universities can help to project light on the requirements of curriculum for the increasing immigrant ESL students. It is determined that L2 language proficiency should be measured for immigrants in a way comparable to that which is done for international students; strategies for academic achievement should be explicitly taught to provide a sort of scaffolding during the transition from survival to academic English; and instructors should be made aware of the likely enormous familial and societal demands on immigrant students, pressures that international students are less likely to face. (KFT)

Utilizing similar format like the one in the National Reading Panel (2000), the report took efforts for reviewing the strategies to improve the literacy in comprehension strategies, awareness of phonemic, vocabulary, ?uency in oral reading and in phonics.

On the other hand, increased ESL training and assistance is not sufficient due to the increased need of literacy programs for these students and not only the language programs. In any language, most of the students are not print literate. Thus, it is required to provide the required support for developing first time learning literacy and assistance that is not acquired from the traditional ESL programs. The reason is lack of their focus in the program. For the most part, basic print literacy teaching is beyond the experience of most high school teachers. At least according to Luke et al., (2003) in Australia, literacy in the curriculum is a major initiative in most of the policy drives, but uptake of the concept and responsibility for literacy has remained minimal within mainstream secondary schooling in Australia. Hence, the teaching of basic beginning reading and writing is not often considered a part of high school teachers’ standard skill set. The ESL instructors like T2 identifies the requirements of literacy instruction and the importance of gap filling for the other school-based content.

Education is essential for every human being and it is a concern of all for resettlement experiences which the refugee families currently present in Australia have faced. The education and its benefits are important for integration and desires of the refugee families. The education might be for the adult, or for the young refugee students for English language tuition.

As an example Dooley (2009), recommends that the earlier units of the refugees and migrant introduced strong formal education with high-level first language literacy. On the other hand, higher levels of educational requirements are identified for the African refugees when compared to the other groups. This resulted to spend long time in these refugee camps who have less access to the formal schooling and who experiences violence and trauma, followed by they experience family separation and loss, along with the struggles of resettlement (Atwell, Gifford, & McDonald-Wilmsen, 2009; Taylor & Sidhu, 2011). This is also stated by Matthews in 2008 and Major, Wilkinson & Langat in 2013 research.

Brown, Miller and Mitchell (2006) identified that the students faced problems in subject specific language, school’s cultural knowledge on the topics, their pedagogical method and Australian classroom practices with the utilized resources. As per Dooley, (2009) especially, in the secondary level, the mainstream classroom teachers hardly considers language teaching as their responsibility for increasing the literacy level. Tangen, (2009) states that, most of the instructors are not aware about the second language acquisition processes and don’t adjust their expectations or their pedagogical practices appropriately for helping the young refugees. As an example from the research of Taylor and Sidhu, (2011), though the research reports positive and innovative work by some of the schools, it is proved that the instructors and the schools are less equipped for understanding and for meeting the diverse requirements of the African refugee students.

 Taylor, 2008 recommends that the English second language or ESL instructors must have responsibility to manage the language and learning requirements of the students who are young refugees from Africa. The professionals report feeling overwhelmed and poorly equipped for providing holistic help that is need for the African refugee students.  The instructors always think that the students have come across the formal education and know their first language. Matthews, (2008) states that the students of refugees from African background need alternative method,  study materials/ resources and assessment tools for building communicative competences. More focus is required on such students as they belong to the category of non-literate traditions. Further, Matthews, (2008) mention that the method approached by the Australian schools is criticized for providing education for the refugee, as they think it is disjointed and emphasizes the psychological impacts of displacement trauma that leads to therapeutic interventions, which identify the problems at an individual level and ignore the bigger issues like inequality and disadvantages. As per Taylor and Sidhu, (2011), it is recommended that a more holistic approach is required which can embed the responsibility of education and diversity for the refugee in the values followed in the  schools and these values must be practiced for contributing a successful results for the young refugee students.

If right policy and enough funds are not satisfied for the school, then it can pressurize the school and its instructors, when it comes to the welfare of the refugees. The policies and funding are the key contributing factors for the schools (Cummins, Chow &Schecter, n.d.).The researchers have agreed that, the amount of research imparted on explicit literacy instruction for English Language Learners is too small when compared to the native English speakers. Thus, in this topic more research is required. Hardly any policy exists for helping the refugees acquire the L2 reading skills. This underlines the need for enough funding to contribute the important factors that must be imposed on the schools and instructor, for helping the young refugee learners in public schools enjoy quality education. The researchers Taylor and Sidhu has evaluated the lack of required organizational frameworks and policies for addressing the disadvantages for significant education, with respect to the young refugees. As per Major, Wilkinson and Langat (2013), it is stated that the present policies and funding rules haven’t changed with the time, in concern to support the refugees.

While working together with the whole set of students, especially with ELLs who have less access to English learning in their previous schooling, an effective step is taken to develop these students’ English language skills with huge amount of funds of knowledge and distinct insights which such students have, due to their previous life’s experience. By developing the student’s knowledge and experience, the trainers have discovered that these students have the potential to be engaged in school and school life, if they are provided the opportunity of sharing their personal experiences and their personal information. The text provided by the student could be clubbed with the digital photos/ illustration, which can be modified as, “dual language books”.

According to (“English Literacy Development Supporting English Language Learners with Limited Prior Schooling”, 2014), it is necessary to have academic success for navigating the world of print-based literacy. Thus, the skills of foundational literacy, acts as a building block for the high-level skills like, to read and write, which comprises of understanding on phonological awareness, letter-sound relationships, print concept, any text’s comprehending meaning and ability to write the letters, words and sentences. All the above mentioned skills interrelate with each other and help in building each other. These children should be educated in the perspective of meaningful and interesting literacy activities for the students.

Cummins, (2008) mentions that the students with significant gaps in their formal schooling might need ten years or might be even more number of years for acquiring the proficiency in the academic languages, which will help them in understanding and expressing the ideas and concepts which are applicable to the school’s long-term success, which is nearly twice the catch-up period which is foreseen for the first language literacy skills in the students. The program of Ontario targets to bridge such gap with the identification of every single ELLs’ unique literacy requirements and helps them to adapt the instruction, study resources, assessment, including the learning environment. The learning environment sets the base for helping the young Syrian refugees to fully participate in the school curriculum, with full interest.The instructions provided for the beginning readers must consider to have effective presentation like various fronts, along with phonemic awareness, reading comprehension, phonics, vocabulary and fluency. The National Reading Panel have reviewed the findings of many experiments for determining the enough scientific evidencesfor indicating the effectiveness of such instructions which can help the students in acquiring the reading skills.

QUESTION: What teaching, and assessment strategies and material can teachers use to support acquiring L2 reading skills of these learners?

As per August, Shanahan & Escamilla, (2009), the research addresses the highly controversial debate,  This is related to the instruction language and mainly shows the role of native language of the student plays in instruction. By reading chapter 14, the practitioners and policy makers are easily assume that the reasonable contentious history, and also in the first part of the report, there are raising the issue of topicality and why such a critical research topic would be buried in the report rather than being prominently featured. The ?nding reported are,(1) “Where program differences were observed, they favored students in a bilingual program. The meta-analytic results suggest a positive effect for bilingual instruction hat is moderate in size” (2) The observations found from the synthesis recommend that, no negative effects  exists from bilingual instruction, for developing the English literacy.Here, the ?ndings project on the explicit teaching strategies for literacy, the researchers recommend that “attributes of effective schools for native English speakers, such as implicit and explicit challenging of students, active involvement of all students, providing activities that students can complete, cooperative learning, etc., can also be effective for English language learners” Later, it is also stressed on caution that exists certain techniques for second-language acquisition like sheltered English and respect for cultural diversity, which has to be used for effective school and classroom strategies. Further, it is highlighted that when the effective schools and classrooms are changed then they no longer have similar practices, like the one provided for the native English-speaking children instead the Second language learners are provided a modified practices which will help all the students.

The following section projects on the findings for pointing the essential requirements to achieve the opportunities of professional development for the ELLs’ instructors who are targeted to initially implement on the belief of “Changing the instructors” and Language minority children’s attitudes, strength and their teachers provide solid preparation for effective teaching strategies and approaches for ELLs The researchers asserts that in a study, “teachers blamed the English language learners’ dif?culty with reading skills on their cultural and language backgrounds, rather than on teaching methods, materials and teacher assumptions” Where just 5 researches were reviewed, where the results showed that there is no need to change the teachers as it is a trend where the instructors and others have de?cit views on language minority children.

 The native English speakers have much smaller explicit literacy instruction than ELLs and the research in this area is much more needed that is acknowledged by the authors.

The authors state that “?uency instruction bene?ts native speakers and appears to similarly bene?t English language learners”.

According to Portes and Rumbaut (2001), there are more complicated conclusions. Native speakers and English-language learners” have the similar second-language literacy development that is also possible and “It appears fair to say that the 17 studies discussed in this section yielded results that are largely consistent with the ?ndings for native-speaking populations”, where nearly 400 studies have to be reviewed. Though the results are not enough to prove that the exact instructional routines have been bene?cial for the native speakers to learn second language. The findings of this study contradicts with the rest of the studies, where the pattern in the achievements of the student could be directly linked with the sociocultural factors’ in?uence.

As per Goldenberg, Rueda & August, (2006), the observations from the result represent mixed message. The reader lead the readers believe that  schools and classrooms are effective to work on the similar practices for both the ELLs and the native English speakers. Just like this statement, “good teaching is good teaching.” For helping the ELLs, this study stresses to modify these strategies. To support this modification there are certain researches which have acknowledged there support and stated that good instruction and curriculum plays effective role to help the ELLs. Although, there exists many who agree that the instructors should be modified for taking care of the development level in students, in terms of English pro?ciency. It is believed that, when the strategies are changed for cultural and linguistic differences, then the strategies no longer have the similar strategies. Hence, when the changed approaches and strategies take a new dimension and attribute, it will make the strategy to become “new” in its own terms.

In terms of professional development, new pedagogy and methods must be encouraged than changing the instructors.

Guided reading is essential for comprehensive literacy program. The implementation of such program for reading instruction will benefit every single student, inclusive of English-language learners.

Conclusion and Implications

Basically, the current political and economic influences of British Empire has led to perceive English as the Universal language. Depending on the prospects of theory and policy, in minority youth and children the English language learner’s(ELLs) literacy is determined by the National Literacy Panel. The research questions are researched and answered. Various studies have been reviewed to find relevant answers to the questions in the research. The following are some of the key points that are discussed. The methodology implemented in this review is a systematic research approach, which considers high-quality evidence. This review has taken possible efforts that the language-minority children’s educations are indentified, assesses and also synthesized by means of their literacy attainment. It is highlighted that the Syrian refugee kids among the age 10 to 12 are faced with many trials of integration in the English schools, which contains leastabilities to express the linguistic means to get education.

The key objective that is focussed in the review is, whether learning to read English language (L2) is challenging for the Syrian kids who have incomplete language and literacy skills in their native language i.e., Arabic (L1). The review starts with a focal note that there are high possibilities that the refugee children might face less class participation, due to language barrier while learning to read the L2 (English language) skills.Initially, the method is implemented by the selection of the topic, followed by framing related research questions for conducting the review. Further, arguments and reasoning are represented and evaluated. At last, depending on the evaluation necessary suggestions along with findings are represented in this review. The difficulty encountered during the review includesfinding apt research papers, which shows sociocultural interventions.

Hence,L1 reading skills play an essential role in acquiring the L2 reading skills. If an individual is proficient in one language, then it acts as a bridge for learning other language like English. Language transfer corresponds to transferring of L1 reading skills to L2 reading skills.Henceforth, the review determines that there are positive impacts of L1 reading skills for developing the reading skills in L2. The development of literacy in English language is influenced based on the aspects like, age, individual’s language proficiency, English oral proficiency, cognitive abilities, previous learning and the similarities and differences that exists in the first and second languages.

Next, the impact of reading skills in L1 on reading skills of L2 development might be differentiated based on the reading performance, their attentiveness to learn different features of L2 reading performance, in learners who know two alphabetic languages which follow different writing systems and direction of reading. It also variates their rate of reading/ reading accuracy and reading comprehension correlating with reading fluency.The cross-linguistics could influence the literacy knowledge, processes, and strategies in children who are second language learners.However, the review doesn’t determine much impacts, but it found that there can be impacts due to pedagogical implications, for the classroom practices which the instructors follow.

It is believed that, when the strategies are changed for cultural and linguistic differences, then the strategies no longer have the similar strategies. Hence, when the changed approaches and strategies take a new dimension and attribute, it will make the strategy to become “new” in its own terms.

The research on in?uences about socio cultural and impact on potential literacy development done shows that, one exception is where the in?uence of policies at the state level, district level and federal levels are ensured.

English Language Learners or the inordinate pressure which the federal policies have assigned on the schools to have programs like, “one size ?ts all” for matching the accountability and testing systems of “one size ?ts all” program.

The following are some of the recommendations that are suggested after the review(Co?kun&Emin, 2016)- Initiative for increasing the awareness among the school administrators and instructors/teachers with respect to the Syrian children is very important. This can be accomplished with a committed civil servants just to take care the schooling of the Syrian children. The Syrian children must remain in Temporary Education Centers(TECs) unless they obtain proficiency in the local language (French) of Ontario, Canada. However, even after improving their French language, they will need help in gaining proficiency. Therefore, the next plan must be worked on this help.  Generally, it is observed that the Syrians fear that they might forget their culture by forgetting Arabic language (L1). Therefore, these concerns must be addressed with policies and closure of TECs must be acknowledged. Due to war and immigration issue in Syria, most of the young children experience psycho-social problems, it is recommended that these children must be provided counseling service. It is further suggested that, the international community must take responsibilities to provide significant resources for Syrian Children’s schooling. Then, funding and financial plans for facilitating the classrooms and schools with educational materials and staff should be developed, because it will helps the Syrian children to have access to high quality education.The unschooled children must be given more preference as they are referred as disoriented. Thus, they must be in touch with the children’s parents by initiating official visits to such category students’ homes. Additionally, even financial help must be provided to help with transportation cost along with evening classes. Cooperation from the Syrian teachers, school administrators, national and international NGOs and civil servant is required to help the Syrian kids. The schooling of all the girls will help to improve the schooling of Syrian girls too.In places other than Syria, some children are stopped from going to schools due to the lack of school buildings and classrooms, such cases must be resolved by building additional schools and providing related facility. On the other hand, the Syrian young children must be provided full day education, to ensure quality of the education. To accomplish this, the TECs must begin teaching in the earlier hours so they must be facilitated with physical and infrastructural facilities like new school buildings and classrooms.Selection of Syrian teachers must be done meticulously, where the instructors are trained through in-service trainings. For TEC students, additional make-up classes must be arranged for compensating their gaps in other subjects like physics, mathematics, chemistry and foreign language courses.

Most valuable suggestion is to integrate the content present in L1 and L2 reading programs.

The students with high or low proficiency in L2 Language along with its impact and recommendations are discussed briefly in this review.

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